Job Stress in Teaching Profession in Malaysia: A Recent Comprehensive Structured Review

Job Stress in Teaching Profession in Malaysia: A Recent Comprehensive Structured Review

Wan Noor Izzati¹, Noor Aina Amirah^1,2*

¹Faculty of Business and Management, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia

²Artificial Intelligence Research Centre for Islam and Sustainability (AIRIS), Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia

^*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.908000236

Received: 28 July 2025; Accepted: 03 August 2025; Published: 05 September 2025

ABSTRACT

This systematic literature review investigates job stress among teachers in Malaysia, examining various social, environmental, and professional stressors that contribute to mental and physical strain in the teaching profession. Job stress in this context has been increasingly recognized as a critical issue, particularly in light of pandemic-driven shifts to digital and hybrid learning environments, economic challenges, and heightened expectations of teachers’ roles. Key findings reveal that stressors such as inadequate resources, excessive workload, and low technological support intersect with socio-demographic factors, including gender and socioeconomic status, significantly impacting teachers’ job satisfaction, mental health, and professional resilience. Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated these challenges, increasing teachers’ responsibilities and their stress levels, especially among educators in socioeconomically disadvantaged regions. To achieve this, we extensively searched scholarly articles from reputable databases such as Scopus and Web of Science (WoS), focusing on studies published between 2022 and 2024. The study’s flow is based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) framework. The database yielded (n = 30) final primary data and was analysed. The findings were divided into three themes: (1) Mental Health and Well-Being of Teachers, (2) Technological Challenges and Digital Communication in Education, and (3) Social and Environmental Stressors Impacting Educators. This review concludes that a holistic approach involving government, educational institutions, and community stakeholders is essential to mitigate job stress in the teaching profession, promote teacher well-being, and improve educational outcomes in Malaysia. Future research directions are recommended to focus on innovative and localized strategies that empower educators to navigate job stressors effectively, contributing to a sustainable educational environment.

Keywords: Burnout, Job stress, Occupational stress, Teacher, Teaching workload

INTRODUCTION

Job stress in teaching has garnered substantial attention in educational research globally, particularly in secondary schools where teacher demands are increasingly complex and multifaceted [1] [2] [3]. In Malaysia, secondary school teachers face a unique set of challenges that contribute to high levels of job stress, which, in turn, affects their professional performance, mental health, and overall job satisfaction [4] [5] [6]. Notably, job stress among educators is not only a personal issue but also a systemic problem with far-reaching implications for the education system [7]. Since teachers are at the core of student learning, understanding and mitigating stress in the profession is vital to improving educational outcomes and ensuring the well-being of both teachers and students. Therefore, this article aims to explore the key factors contributing to job stress among secondary school teachers in Malaysia and provide a structured review of current research in the field. The current body of research highlights several major contributors to job stress in the teaching profession. For instance, excessive workload, lack of administrative support, student behavior problems, and high expectations from society and educational authorities are among the most commonly cited stressors [8] [9] [10] [11]. Studies by Ummi Naiemah Saraih (2024) [12] emphasized that teachers in Malaysian secondary schools experience high stress levels due to heavy workloads and rigid performance targets. Additionally, Kee Pau et al. (2022) [3] reported that Malaysian teachers often report experiencing mental and emotional fatigue, which leads to burnout, anxiety, and even depression. Classroom management issues, particularly in overcrowded or under-resourced schools, further contribute to this stress, making it challenging for teachers to maintain both personal and professional balance [13] [14].

Despite the extensive research in this area, several gaps and unresolved issues remain. Much of the literature focuses on generalized stressors without considering the socio-cultural context of Malaysia or regional differences in stress levels between urban and rural schools. There is also limited research on gender disparities in teacher stress, particularly in understanding how female teachers, especially working mothers, cope with the dual burdens of family and professional responsibilities. Another unresolved issue is the long-term impact of job stress on teacher attrition and its indirect effects on student performance and educational quality. In addition, controversies also exist regarding the most effective interventions for reducing job stress, with some studies advocating systemic reforms in the education system while others emphasize individual coping mechanisms. Thus, by synthesizing the latest research, this article aims to identify the causes of job stress and potential solutions that can be applied across different school environments in Malaysia. The objectives of this article are twofold. First, it seeks to provide a comprehensive and structured review of current research on job stress in the Malaysian teaching profession. Second, it aims to highlight areas for future research, particularly regarding region-specific stressors, gender differences, and effective intervention strategies. Through this exploration, the article contributes to advancing knowledge in the field of educational psychology. It offers practical recommendations for policymakers, educators, and school administrators to enhance teacher well-being and the overall quality of education in Malaysia.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Research trends on job stress in the teaching profession have demonstrated increasing attention to the role of various factors, such as school environment, pedagogical practices, and administrative support, in shaping the well-being of secondary school teachers. Lotte Morel (2023) [14] explored the influence of work commitment and school climate on pedagogical practices among Islamic Education Teachers (IETs), demonstrating that school climate plays a critical role in teachers’ ability to manage work-related stress. The study discovered that a positive school climate enhances teachers’ commitment and pedagogical effectiveness, reducing their stress levels. However, the study only focused on IETs, leaving gaps in understanding teachers’ experiences from other disciplines. Similarly, Cohen et al. (2023) [15] evaluated STEM teachers’ productive learning practices, reporting that while these teachers experienced moderate levels of job-related stress, their stress levels were significantly influenced by the subjects they taught. These findings revealed a growing trend towards examining subject-specific stressors and the need for broader research that includes diverse teaching fields in secondary education.

The research also highlights the strengths and limitations of different approaches to studying job stress among secondary school teachers. For instance, Kathryn L. Damicone (2021) [16] examined the adoption of Google Classroom (GC) and its analytics in secondary schools, revealing that while the platform improved teaching performance, it also introduced new stressors related to the use of technology. This study’s strength lies in its focus on technological stress, which is increasingly relevant in the context of the Industrial Revolution 4.0. However, its limitation is the focus on urban secondary schools, raising concerns about their generalizability to rural settings, where infrastructure and technological support may differ. On the other hand, S. Dayal (2023) [17] and Aisha Sarah et al. (2022) [18] examined online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. The studies asserted that although teachers quickly adapted to online platforms, the effectiveness of online teaching was highly dependent on teacher-related factors, such as preparedness and adaptability. This study identified teacher workload and the need for immediate adaptation as significant sources of stress, yet the study’s focus on economics teachers leaves room for further investigation into other subject areas.

Moreover, several studies underscore the inadequacies of current research methodologies. Norazman et al. (2023) [19] proposed a Classroom Condition Index (CCI) to assess classroom environments, aiming to improve teachers’ work conditions. Their research highlighted the physical aspects of teaching environments as contributors to stress, as inadequate classroom conditions can affect teacher performance and student outcomes. Although the CCI assessment offers a structured framework, it remains limited to physical conditions, focusing less on psychological or interpersonal factors contributing to teacher stress. Sohaeir et al. (2023) [20] also highlighted the use of teaching aids like “Easy Match” for special education students. The research noted that while these aids ease the teaching process, they can also contribute to workload-related stress due to the need for additional training and resource management. However, this study’s narrow focus on special education limits its applicability to the wider teaching profession. At the same time, the existing literature mentions several research gaps. For instance, while the increasing focus is on how school climate, technology, and classroom conditions affect teachers’ job stress, there is minimal research on how external factors, such as policy changes or parental expectations, contribute to teacher stress. Additionally, most studies focus on specific teacher demographics or subject areas, such as Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) or Islamic education, leaving a gap in understanding how stress manifests across different regions and school types in Malaysia. Moreover, there is also a need for longitudinal studies to assess how teachers’ stress levels evolve over time, particularly in response to evolving educational policies and global shifts such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Considering the gaps identified, there is a pressing need for future research that addresses these limitations. Expanding the scope of studies to include a more comprehensive range of teachers from different disciplines and regions would offer a more complete picture of the job stress landscape in Malaysian secondary schools. Additionally, more attention should be paid to psychological factors, such as emotional exhaustion and burnout, which remain underexplored in current studies. Therefore, future research should also employ mixed-method approaches to provide a more holistic understanding of teacher stress, incorporating qualitative data on teachers’ lived experiences alongside quantitative measures. Notably, the issue of job stress among teachers in Malaysia has garnered significant attention in recent years. As education evolves, teachers are increasingly subjected to diverse pressures, from pedagogical demands to challenges posed by integrating new technologies into the classroom. Additionally, socio-emotional factors among students contribute to this stress. Various studies have investigated different aspects of these challenges, yet much remains to understand with regard to the broader implications of job stress and how it affects teachers’ performance and well-being.

Research Trends

Recent studies exhibit a growing trend in exploring the impact of technological and pedagogical changes on teachers’ stress levels. Ivarson et al. (2024) [15] examined how Augmented Reality (AR) for mobile learning can reshape teaching methodologies in secondary schools, emphasizing that teachers must adapt to new learning environments. This study highlighted technology’s role in alleviating or exacerbating teacher stress, especially when educators must develop new competencies quickly. Similarly, Low et al. (2024) [16] analyzed the use of Game-Based Learning (GBL) in physics education. The author revealed that while teachers demonstrated interest, actual adoption was hindered by insufficient infrastructure and lack of time, contributing to heightened stress levels. The increased focus on digital and game-based tools reflects broader efforts within Malaysia’s education system to modernize, as outlined in the Malaysian Government Education Blueprint 2013-2025. However, these advancements come at a cost to teachers who struggle to keep pace with such rapid technological integration, amplifying job-related stress.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Current Research

Research on job stress among teachers in Malaysia reveals several strengths, particularly in recognizing the changing educational landscape. Studies by Guo and Zhang (2021) [17] comprehensively analyzed how teachers managed virtual classrooms during the pandemic, identifying specific challenges like lack of sufficient training and infrastructure. These findings contributed to a better understanding of how external crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, can exacerbate stress in the teaching profession. On the other hand, Mansilla et al. (2022) [18] focused on affective factors such as language anxiety, indirectly emphasizing how the psychological climate in schools can affect teachers’ stress levels, especially when dealing with anxious students. However, much of the research is limited in scope and methodology. Many studies, such as by Lavy (2022) [19], rely heavily on quantitative methods and surveys, which might not fully capture the depth of teachers’ experiences with stress. Furthermore, studies focusing primarily on technological adoption or students’ anxiety overlook the broader psychosocial and administrative challenges that also contribute to teachers’ stress. While necessary, the narrow focus on specific stressors leaves a gap in understanding the cumulative impact of various pressures.

Gaps in the Knowledge Base

One of the most prominent gaps in the current literature is the lack of longitudinal studies examining the long-term effects of job stress on teachers’ mental health and job satisfaction. Most studies, such as those by Anthony et al. (2023) [20] and Lie et al. (2020) [21], offered snapshots of teacher stress within specific contexts, like technology integration or pandemic-related teaching disruptions. However, these studies did not explore the ongoing impact of these stressors over time. There is also a paucity of research on the support systems available to teachers, such as administrative support, peer collaboration, and access to mental health resources. Moreover, research often fails to consider the diversity of schools across Malaysia. In particular, many schools in rural areas face different challenges, including limited access to technology and larger student-teacher ratios. Additionally, the focus on urban settings and advanced technological integration does not address the unique stresses teachers face in less developed regions.

Future Research Needs

Future research should adopt a more holistic approach, encompassing quantitative and qualitative methods, to capture a fuller picture of job stress among secondary school teachers. Mixed-method studies that include interviews, focus groups, and case studies would provide deeper insights into teachers’ lived experiences. Furthermore, longitudinal research could assess the long-term effects of job stress on mental health, job satisfaction, and retention rates. There is also a need for research focusing on teachers in rural or under-resourced schools, where stressors may differ significantly from those in urban areas. In addition, investigating how different types of support, such as mental health resources, peer networks, and professional development, influence stress management could also be valuable. As Chua and Bong (2024) and Ismail et al. (2023) suggested, teachers’ stress is often linked to inadequate training and resources. Thus, future studies should explore the efficacy of various interventions to reduce stress, particularly in underfunded schools. The issue of job stress among secondary school teachers in Malaysia has gained significant scholarly attention, particularly concerning factors that contribute to heightened stress levels. This includes technological challenges, pandemic-induced disruptions, and evolving professional demands. Accordingly, the existing literature reveals multiple dimensions to this problem, ranging from infrastructural inadequacies to psychological impacts on teachers.

A key theme in the literature is the integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in school systems, which has led to both opportunities and challenges for teachers. Ping et al. (2024) highlighted that Malaysian secondary school teachers face numerous barriers when participating in e-leadership platforms, such as ineffective or outdated ICT equipment, insufficient training, and disturbances to personal time. Despite these challenges, the role of technology remains critical in modern educational leadership, necessitating ongoing support and training to help teachers navigate these systems effectively. Similarly, Ahmad et al. (2023) discovered that self-efficacy and technological support significantly affect teachers’ utilization of Virtual Learning Environments (VLE), particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. This underscores the need for better-quality technological facilities and continuous professional development to help teachers adapt to technological demands. Both studies highlighted infrastructural gaps as significant contributors to teacher stress, especially in rural or under-resourced areas. Another pertinent issue is the emotional and professional toll of the pandemic on teachers. Wider et al. (2024) explored the life stressors of students during the COVID-19 lockdown. While the focus was on students, the findings indirectly suggest the profound impact on teachers managing online teaching and their own emotional well-being. Teachers, like their students, were not immune to the emotional stress and the abrupt shift to online platforms. Furthermore, Mokhlis and Abdullah (2024) examined the relationship between teacher empowerment and innovative work behavior, suggesting that teachers who feel empowered experience lower stress levels and are more likely to engage in innovative teaching practices. This emphasizes the significance of fostering an empowering environment to mitigate job-related stress.

Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) have been identified in rural and remote regions to bolster teacher motivation and reduce stress. Khun-Inkeeree et al. (2023) investigated the impact of PLC practices on teacher motivation in the Jeli District, Malaysia. The study noted that teachers in remote areas, despite facing significant challenges, benefit from PLC practices that improve both motivation and professional development. This highlights the significance of peer support systems in mitigating job-related stress and enhancing teaching quality, especially in regions with limited resources and training opportunities. The literature also reflects a broader consensus on the multifaceted nature of teacher stress. Yusoff et al. (2024) noted that Physical and Health Education (PHE) teachers in Selangor are significantly influenced by school accountability, further adding to their stress levels. The study revealed that the more years of experience a teacher has, the more stressed they feel due to the growing demands of accountability and performance evaluation. This finding is corroborated by research conducted by Chua et al. (2023), which demonstrated that teachers’ well-being during the pandemic was affected by several demographic and contextual factors, including family income and personal health.

Despite these valuable insights, there are still notable gaps in the literature that warrant further investigation. For instance, while many studies have explored the impact of technological challenges and pandemic-related stress, less attention has been paid to long-term coping mechanisms employed by teachers and the role of mental health support in reducing job stress. Additionally, the existing research primarily focuses on urban or semi-urban settings, with limited studies examining the unique stressors faced by teachers in remote areas. Therefore, future research should consider a more holistic approach that includes both quantitative and qualitative analyses to better understand the evolving nature of teacher stress, particularly in light of new challenges such as hybrid teaching models. Recent studies underscore the complexity of job stress among secondary school teachers in Malaysia, identifying critical stressors related to technological demands, pedagogical shifts, and pandemic-induced disruptions. Furthermore, the research emphasizes the impact of these pressures on teachers’ well-being, highlighting the challenges of rapid adaptation to new instructional methods, particularly in integrating digital tools. In addition, evidence suggests that teachers in both urban and rural areas face distinct stress factors, with urban teachers confronting advanced technology requirements and rural teachers dealing with infrastructure limitations. Moreover, studies indicate that professional development opportunities, such as e-leadership training and support systems like PLCs, are valuable for mitigating stress and enhancing teacher efficacy. While many studies focus on technological challenges, gaps remain in understanding the cumulative effects of job stress over time, particularly concerning emotional resilience and long-term well-being. Thus, the literature suggests a need for future research that examines the role of psychological support, explores coping mechanisms and incorporates a diverse array of teacher demographics, particularly those in under-resourced areas.

METHODOLOGY

Identification

Essential phases in the systematic review method were used in this study to collect a significant number of pertinent materials. After selecting keywords, the next step was establishing similar terms using dictionaries, thesauri, encyclopedias, and previous research. After identifying all pertinent terms, search strings were constructed for the Scopus and Web of Science (WoS) databases (see Table 1). Due to their extensive coverage, high-quality indexing standards, and advanced analytics features, Scopus and WoS are essential and powerful tools for conducting systematic literature reviews. Both databases are recognized globally for indexing a vast range of peer-reviewed journals across multiple disciplines, including social sciences, education, and health, ensuring that researchers have access to diverse high-impact studies. Scopus, in particular, is known for its broad interdisciplinary coverage, while WoS is renowned for its focus on citation analysis and indexing highly influential journals. Utilizing both databases allow researchers to access the most current and impactful studies, as each database has unique indexing policies and journal inclusions, reducing the risk of missing critical publications and thus ensuring a comprehensive literature base. Additionally, the sophisticated search functionalities in Scopus and WoS, such as citation tracking and Boolean search operators, allow for in-depth analysis and precise filtering, enhancing the rigor and replicability of systematic reviews. Accordingly, the use of both Scopus and WoS not only bolsters the credibility and completeness of the research findings but also mitigates potential database-specific biases, resulting in a more reliable and exhaustive review of the literature. Ultimately, 598 papers relevant to the study issue were discovered in the two databases during this first phase of the systematic review.

Table 1 The Search String

Screening

In the screening phase, relevant research items are assessed to confirm their alignment with the predetermined research questions. This stage includes selecting studies focused on job stress in the teaching profession in Malaysia, and duplicate entries are eliminated here. Initially, 491 publications were excluded, leaving 107 papers for further analysis based on specific inclusion and exclusion criteria (see Table 2). The first criterion prioritized literature sources that offer practical insights, such as reviews, meta-syntheses, meta-analyses, books, book series, chapters, and conference proceedings not included in the latest studies. The review was restricted to English-language publications from 2022 to 2024. In total, 21 publications were excluded due to duplication.

Table 2: The Selection Criterion in Searching

Eligibility

In the third step, referred to as the eligibility phase, 86 articles were prepared for review. At this stage, each article’s titles and core content were closely scrutinized to verify their alignment with the inclusion criteria and research objectives. As a result, 56 articles were excluded for reasons such as being outside the relevant field, having a title that lacked significance, an abstract unrelated to the study’s objectives, or lacking full-text access. As a result, this process left a total of 30 articles for the forthcoming review.

Data Abstraction and Analysis

This study employed an integrative analysis as one of the key assessment methods, aiming to examine and synthesize a variety of research designs, particularly quantitative approaches. The study’s main objective was to identify relevant topics and subtopics, with the data collection stage serving as the foundation for theme development. As displayed in Figure 2, the authors conducted a detailed analysis of 30 selected publications, identifying assertions and content pertinent to the study’s topics. Subsequently, significant studies on job stress in the teaching profession in Malaysia were evaluated, focusing on methodologies and research findings across the studies. Collaboration with co-authors facilitated the development of themes based on evidence within the study’s context. A log was maintained throughout data analysis to document interpretations, perspectives, questions, or insights relevant to data interpretation. Finally, the authors compared findings to identify any discrepancies in theme development, discussing any differences in concepts to reach a consensus. The authors also compared the findings to resolve any discrepancies in the theme-creation process. Note that if any inconsistencies in the themes arose, the authors addressed them with one another. Finally, the developed themes were tweaked to ensure their consistency. To ensure the validity of the problems, two experts performed the examinations, one specializing in oncology and the other in biomedical science. The expert review phase helped ensure each sub-theme’s clarity, importance, and adequacy by establishing domain validity. Consequently, adjustments based on expert feedback and comments have been made at the author’s discretion.

The questions are as follows below:

• How does the implementation of mental health support programs affect mental health, stress levels, and overall well-being among secondary school teachers and students in Malaysia compared to those without access to such programs?
• How does access to training and support programs for digital communication tools and online teaching platforms impact teaching effectiveness, reduce technology-related stress, and improve digital communication skills among secondary school teachers in Malaysia compared to those without such training?
• What is the effect of targeted support programs for managing social and environmental stressors on stress levels, emotional well-being, and performance among secondary school students and teachers in Malaysia compared to those without access to such programs?

Table 3 Data

Figure 1 Flow Diagram of the Proposed Search Study

FINDINGS

Theme 1: Mental Health and Well-being of Teachers

The studies reviewed collectively highlight the growing concern surrounding the mental health and well-being of educators, particularly in the context of Malaysia. Several interventions and mental health frameworks have been assessed to address mental health challenges faced by teachers. Keng et al. (2024) investigated the effectiveness of Dialectical Behavior Therapy-Skills Training (DBT-ST) specifically designed for teachers. Although their study demonstrated that DBT-ST had a positive impact on reducing burnout and dysfunctional coping, it did not significantly improve all mental health outcomes. Similarly, Pau et al. (2022) highlighted those teachers in Malaysia face significant stress, primarily due to work-related challenges, leading to burnout and diminished physical and mental health. Furthermore, Ishak et al. (2022) examined the heightened stress, depression, and anxiety among teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic, underscoring the need for comprehensive interventions to support teacher well-being.

In the realm of student mental health, Dapari et al. (2022) explored an Information–Motivation–Behavioral Skills (IMB) module aimed at reducing Depression, Anxiety, and Stress (DAS) among adolescents in boarding schools. Their findings revealed a notable reduction in DAS scores in the intervention group compared to the control, demonstrating the module’s efficacy. Additionally, Fu et al. (2022) focused on the correlation between internet addiction and mental health issues in adolescents, particularly highlighting that emotional stability plays a critical role in moderating the relationship between internet addiction and emotional distress. Both studies underscored the value of mental health interventions targeting specific stressors, such as internet addiction and educational pressures, in supporting the well-being of students.

Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic brought additional stress to educators, as highlighted by Maung et al. (2022) and Ishak et al. (2022). In particular, Maung et al. examined the prevalence of DAS among teachers during the pandemic, revealing substantial increases in psychological distress linked to the pandemic’s challenges. Their research highlighted the significance of regular mental health screenings and adjustments in workload to help teachers cope. Meanwhile, Ishak et al. observed that COVID-19 significantly impacted teachers’ mental health, recommending policy changes and administrative support to alleviate the increased stress. These studies collectively emphasized the need for ongoing mental health support systems and policy interventions to enhance educators’ and students’ resilience and overall well-being during and beyond crises.

The reviewed studies demonstrate a broad consensus regarding the importance of mental health support for teachers and students in the educational system. Notably, by employing varied methodologies and interventions, such as DBT-ST (Keng et al., 2024), IMB-based modules (Dapari et al., 2022), and mental health screenings (Maung et al., 2022), the research collectively suggests that targeted mental health interventions are essential for addressing the distinct challenges within educational settings. Overall, these findings provide valuable insights for stakeholders in the education sector to design, implement, and evaluate mental health programs to promote psychological well-being among teachers and students.

The mental well-being of teachers in Malaysia has been a significant concern, particularly in light of the high-stress environments they encounter. Numerous studies address the factors contributing to teacher stress and its broader implications on health and professional stability. Ong and Sulaiman Khan (2022) explored how coworker and supervisor support influences stress among teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Their findings indicated that coworker support had a meaningful positive effect in mitigating stress, while support from supervisors was less impactful. For instance, teachers experiencing high stress levels were also more likely to consider leaving their positions, highlighting the need for better support structures at schools. Similarly, Cheah et al. (2023) emphasized the mental health factors affecting physical activity levels among secondary school students, which indirectly impacts teachers who may feel additional pressure to address students’ well-being. The combined insights from these studies underscore the importance of peer support among teachers as a critical factor in reducing stress levels.

Further examining the impact of mental health factors on educators, Lee et al. (2022) investigated the relationship between psychosocial health and Metabolic Syndrome (MS) among Malaysian school teachers. This study discovered that MS prevalence was linked to lifestyle and psychological stress factors, such as job strain and inadequate social support. Moreover, higher levels of support from family and friends were associated with a lower risk of MS, indicating that social and familial connections can positively impact teachers’ physical and mental health. These findings align with the results of Yusoff et al. (2024), who validated the EPOCH measure for adolescent well-being, demonstrating that psychological factors, such as depression and stress, significantly impact adolescents. These parallels between teacher and student mental health suggest that mental well-being is a community-wide issue, with teachers’ stress levels influencing both their health and student interactions.

The integration of these findings across studies reflects the multifaceted nature of teacher stress in Malaysia. While each study provides unique insights, a central theme is the importance of social support in alleviating mental strain. For example, Yusoff et al. (2024) and Ong and Sulaiman Khan (2022) indicated that support systems, whether within the workplace or from family, play a crucial role in coping with stress. Furthermore, these findings imply that institutional policies focused on enhancing peer and supervisor support and fostering supportive networks outside of school could contribute significantly to the mental well-being of teachers, potentially reducing turnover rates and promoting a healthier work environment.

In summary, the studies reviewed provide a cohesive picture of the complex relationship between mental well-being, social support, and job stress among Malaysian teachers. Ong and Sulaiman Khan (2022) and Lee et al. (2022) highlighted the role of coworker and familial support in reducing stress, while Cheah et al. (2023) and Yusoff et al. (2024) addressed the broader mental health implications for both teachers and students. Together, these findings reinforce the need for policies and interventions tailored to the mental well-being of teachers, encouraging robust support systems that could alleviate stress and promote healthier work environments across Malaysian educational institutions.

Theme 2: Technological Challenges and Digital Communication in Education

The shift to digital and online education platforms in Malaysia has revealed several technological challenges that significantly impact teachers’ effectiveness and mental well-being. Studies highlight how limitations in technological infrastructure and competence, particularly during the Movement Control Order (MCO) due to COVID-19, have placed additional burdens on educators. Ahmad et al. (2022) asserted that low technological proficiency among teachers in rural Terengganu was linked to increased anxiety, with 20% of teachers reporting moderate to severe anxiety symptoms. This issue was exacerbated by insufficient access to upskilling programs, leaving teachers unprepared for the abrupt transition to online instruction. Similarly, Zakaria et al. (2022) underscored the significance of addressing family and social factors that may indirectly influence teachers’ ability to adapt to new digital learning environments, highlighting the need for structured support systems to manage stress levels among educators navigating these unfamiliar tools.

The complexity of integrating ICT into education is further evidenced by barriers specific to Physical Education (PE). Irwahand et al. (2022) identified key obstacles to incorporating ICT within PE classes, including inadequate access to digital tools, limited pedagogical support, and a lack of educational content in the national language. These findings are critical as they underscore a digital divide in resources and a disconnect between digital education policy and practical implementation, especially in physical activities that require a hybrid teaching approach. Other than that, Husin et al. (2022) mentioned that a significant number of teachers reported stress due to the continuous demands of online teaching and pressure from external stakeholders. The study suggested that while platforms like Google Meet are widely adopted, teacher support and comfort with prolonged online instruction remain a gap. These studies highlight that resource limitations, content accessibility, and psychological challenges are central barriers to ICT adoption for Malaysian educators, particularly in resource-constrained areas.

The strain induced by technological challenges has underscored the urgent need for systemic improvements in Malaysia’s educational infrastructure. Ahmad et al. (2022) and Husin et al. (2022) suggested that the Ministry of Education must prioritize teacher training in digital competencies and provide ongoing technical and psychological support to reduce the mental strain associated with online teaching. Furthermore, Irwahand et al. (2022) emphasized the successful integration of ICT in education, including specialized areas such as PE. This requires technical resources and sustained pedagogical guidance to ensure teachers feel competent and supported. Notably, addressing these factors is essential to promote both technological adoption and a conducive learning environment, thus enhancing the quality of digital education in Malaysia.

The digitalization of education in Malaysia has introduced significant challenges for teachers, impacting their professional experiences and well-being. Technology adoption, while essential in modern education, has increased stress and workload for educators. Abdullah et al. (2024) observed that extensive use of technology and data management contributes to teachers’ stress and burnout, with a substantial link to early retirement rates. This impact on professional self-efficacy demonstrates the need for systematic interventions to support teachers’ engagement with digital tools without adversely affecting their mental well-being. In addition, Johari et al. (2022) noted that while digital platforms like WhatsApp facilitate parent-teacher engagement, they have also increased stress due to the constant stream of messages and blurred work-life boundaries. Similarly, Ghani et al. (2022) emphasized that the volatile and uncertain digital environment, compounded by economic instability, affects teachers’ ability to effectively manage both their professional responsibilities and students’ emotional needs, which further adds to their stress levels.

The pressures associated with integrating ICT also present barriers in specific teaching contexts. For instance, the study by Johari et al. (2022) highlighted that the frequent use of digital communication platforms led to issues such as distractions, misuse of time, and increased workload for teachers. In their research, Johari et al. (2022) posited that while digital communication offers convenience, it also raises concerns regarding the boundary between professional and personal time, a factor exacerbating stress among teachers. Abdullah et al. (2024) similarly noted that technological proficiency and data usage demands have adversely affected teachers’ self-efficacy, contributing to declining job satisfaction and career longevity. Their findings align with the study by Krauss et al. (2024), which revealed that teachers’ socio-emotional support plays a crucial role in managing stress and enhancing engagement, suggesting the need for structured support and professional development focused on ICT tools.

Furthermore, addressing the well-being of teachers, particularly in the digital realm, requires a supportive environment within educational institutions. Krauss et al. (2024) emphasized that a positive school climate, fostered by supportive relationships and peer networks, significantly reduces stress and promotes teachers’ emotional engagement. These findings highlighted the need for a balanced approach that includes technological proficiency and emotional support to mitigate the negative impacts of digital teaching on teachers. Meanwhile, Johari et al. (2022) suggested practical steps such as setting clear communication boundaries and providing professional development, emphasizing the significance of managing digital communication to minimize stress and workload. The studies by Abdullah et al. (2024), Johari et al. (2022), and Krauss et al. (2024) collectively underscored that addressing the technological challenges and stressors in education requires institutional changes that enhance teachers’ resilience and engagement within digital communication frameworks.

Social and Environmental Stressors Impacting Educators

The recent pandemic and associated shifts in teaching and learning modalities have intensified stressors for both educators and students in Malaysia. Wider et al. (2023) identified multiple sources of stress among secondary school students during the pandemic, such as poor internet connectivity, excessive homework, burnout, and financial difficulties, which collectively contributed to mental health challenges. This aligns with the findings of Phoa et al. (2023), who noted that limited mental health literacy among teachers and parents further restricted students’ access to adequate support for these stressors. Additionally, Bono et al. (2024) discussed the role of social media in adolescents’ lives, suggesting that while social media provided an avenue for coping, it also exacerbated issues like cyberbullying and family disconnects, adding layers to students’ psychological burdens.

For teachers, environmental and social stressors are compounded by workload and external pressures, affecting job satisfaction and mental well-being. Rasudin et al. (2023) observed that primary school teachers in Kota Bharu, Kelantan, experienced significant stress related to the work environment, such as inadequate school facilities and long teaching years. These factors impacted both their psychological health and job performance. Consistently, Phoa et al. (2023) emphasized that teachers with lower socioeconomic backgrounds faced higher mental health challenges, pointing to socioeconomic disparities as an additional stressor. Furthermore, Bono et al. (2024) discussed social media as a double-edged sword in addressing adolescent mental health issues, often causing teachers to be involved in digital conflicts among students and parents, which can lead to stress spillover into their personal lives.

The interaction of environmental factors with educators’ roles poses significant mental health risks, as observed by Rasudin et al. (2023) and Wider et al. (2023). School size and physical conditions emerged as contributors to teacher stress, with larger schools often having more complex issues that challenge teachers’ resilience. Wider et al. (2023) additionally highlighted that online learning added specific environmental stressors, such as inadequate technology infrastructure and lack of classroom interactions, contributing to teacher job dissatisfaction and affecting student learning outcomes. In this context, Phoa et al. (2023) recommended targeted mental health literacy programs to empower teachers and parents, especially those with limited prior experience in mental health support, to manage these challenges better.

To mitigate the ongoing issues surrounding the mental well-being of students and educators in Malaysia, a more holistic support system that addresses both digital and in-person stressors is essential. Wider et al. (2023), Rasudin et al. (2023), and Bono et al. (2024) suggested implementing educational policies that integrate mental health support as an essential component of school resources, while Phoa et al. (2023) emphasized expanding mental health literacy for teachers and guardians to reduce misconceptions and stigma. These comprehensive approaches can help improve the educational experience and address the growing psychological demands on students and educators in Malaysian schools.

The body of research addressing job stress in Malaysia’s teaching profession highlights many social and environmental stressors impacting educators and students alike. A significant theme emerging from the literature is the detrimental influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on both students and teachers. Wider et al. (2024) underscored that the MCO led to increased life stressors for secondary school students, who reported feelings of confinement and restrictions on their social interactions, which adversely affected their mental health. These findings suggest that educators also experienced heightened stress levels as they had to adapt to new teaching modalities while addressing the emotional needs of their students. Hashim et al. (2023) further emphasized this relationship by illustrating the impact of problematic smartphone use among adolescents, often a coping mechanism for stress. This interdependency of stressors affecting students and teachers calls for an integrated approach to stress management within educational settings.

The methodological approaches employed in these studies vary, yet they converge on identifying stressors and their psychological implications. Kaur et al. (2022) utilized a Fuzzy Delphi method to construct a stress index specifically for teachers in Malaysia, illuminating stressors such as financial problems and the challenges of balancing teaching responsibilities with personal life demands. This study reveals that teachers are not only impacted by educational challenges but also by broader socioeconomic factors. At the same time, Chelliah et al. (2023) explored the gendered dimensions of unpaid domestic work during the pandemic, revealing that women, who often serve as primary caregivers, face compounded stress due to an unequal distribution of domestic responsibilities. The intersectionality of gender and educational stress presents a complex landscape where teachers’ performance and mental well-being are intricately linked to their domestic roles.

The findings and discussions within these studies also highlight the need for effective intervention strategies to reduce job stress among educators. Sherif et al. (2024) proposed an online life skills intervention designed to enhance coping skills and self-efficacy among adolescents, suggesting that similar programs could benefit teachers. By fostering resilience and promoting mental health, such interventions can mitigate stress’s adverse effects in educational settings. The effectiveness of therapeutic approaches, as illustrated by Lian et al. (2024), further supports the idea that psychological well-being is essential for educators to cope with the pressures of their profession. Schema therapy, in particular, demonstrates promise in addressing the trauma and stress that can arise from prolonged exposure to adverse working conditions.

In conclusion, the literature indicates that job stress in the teaching profession in Malaysia is influenced by a range of social and environmental stressors exacerbated by the ongoing challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. The intersection of various stressors, ranging from financial challenges to gendered domestic responsibilities, suggests that a multifaceted approach is necessary to address the unique needs of educators. Therefore, future research should continue to explore the development and implementation of targeted interventions that enhance resilience and coping strategies for teachers. Collectively, these findings underscore the urgent need for systemic changes within the educational framework to support the mental well-being of both teachers and students.

CONCLUSIONS

Research demonstrates that mental health challenges are affecting educators in Malaysia, necessitating the implementation of effective interventions and support frameworks. In particular, DBT-ST has presented promise in reducing teacher burnout and maladaptive coping strategies but may not fully address all mental health facets. Meanwhile, high stress levels linked to work demands contribute to burnout and health issues among educators, exacerbated by pandemic-related pressures. In addition, targeted mental health programs targeting specific stressors within the educational environment are crucial. Notably, the COVID-19 pandemic has intensified mental health strains on teachers, emphasizing the need for sustained support. Hence, social support, such as peer and familial networks, is essential for reducing stress and fostering a supportive school environment. Moreover, strengthened institutional support is crucial for educators’ well-being and overall school climate.

The transition to digital education in Malaysia has highlighted significant technological challenges affecting teacher effectiveness and mental well-being. However, limited technological infrastructure, particularly in rural areas, has increased anxiety among educators with low digital proficiency and restricted access to upskilling programs. Additionally, the lack of family and social support has further increased stress levels. The complexity of incorporating ICT in education, particularly in PE, has been particularly challenging. The digital divide suggests a misalignment between digital education policies and practical implementation needs, especially in resource-constrained environments. Thus, teacher training in digital competencies and continuous technical and psychological support are recommended to improve the situation. The volatile digital environment also complicates work-life boundaries and emotional needs. Note that emotional and socio-emotional support is crucial for managing the pressures associated with ICT integration.

The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated stress for educators and students in Malaysia, affecting their mental well-being. Consequently, secondary school students face limited connectivity, excessive workload, burnout, and financial strain, while educators face heavy workloads, insufficient mental health literacy, and increased exposure to cyberbullying and family disconnects. Furthermore, social media has become a coping mechanism but also a source of distress, compounding psychological strain. Meanwhile, teachers face job dissatisfaction due to inadequate facilities, extended teaching years, and socioeconomic pressures. The pandemic has also amplified life stressors, with the MCO limiting social interactions and fostering a sense of confinement among students. In addition, the gendered impact of domestic responsibilities has also impacted teacher performance and mental health. Nevertheless, intervention strategies for addressing job stress among educators may include life skills programs and therapeutic approaches like schema therapy. Moreover, a multifaceted approach is necessary to address educators’ needs, implementing resilience-building interventions and systemic changes within the educational framework to create a healthier and more sustainable educational environment.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We would like to extend our heartfelt gratitude to the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) of Malaysia for the funding of this research under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) project (FRGS/1/2022/SS02/UNISZA/02/4).

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