Melodies of Heritage: The Exquisite Stylistic Tapestry of Lagu Melayu Asli Songs

Melodies of Heritage: The Exquisite Stylistic Tapestry of Lagu Melayu Asli Songs

Suflan Faidzal Arshad, Mohd Azam Sulong, Zamrus Hashim, Aiman Ikram Uyub

Faculty of Music and Performing Arts, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.906000010

Received: 19 May 2025; Accepted: 23 May 2025; Published: 26 June 2025

ABSTRACT

Lagu Melayu Asli, a traditional Malay musical genre that emerged prominently in the 1940s alongside the bangsawan theatre, embodies a unique amalgamation of Malay and Western musical influences. Despite its cultural significance, scholarly research into its stylistic and structural nuances has been notably scarce. This study aims to delve into the stylistic characteristics of Lagu Melayu Asli, examining key elements such as rhythmic patterns, melodic motifs, instrumental roles, lyrical structures, performance styles, and distinctive ornamentation techniques. By employing a qualitative methodology, the research combines an in-depth musical analysis of selected compositions with a thorough review of historical and theoretical literature. The findings highlight the genre’s characteristic polyphonic texture and intricate melodic embellishments, including techniques such as mordents, acciaccaturas, glissandos, and other specialized note ornamentations. Furthermore, the dynamic interplay between vocal lines, violin, and accordion is elucidated, alongside the identification of distinct performance styles that emphasize expressive delivery and nuanced phrasing. The implications of this research extend beyond academic inquiry, offering valuable insights for musicians, educators, and cultural practitioners. By documenting the stylistic intricacies and performance practices of Lagu Melayu Asli, the study contributes not only to the preservation of Malaysia’s intangible cultural heritage but also to the revitalization of the genre within contemporary musical contexts.

Keyword: Characteristic, Cultural Fusion, Lagu Melayu Asli, Stylistic, Syncretic Music, Traditional Malay Music.

INTRODUCTION

Lagu Melayu Asli, a traditional Malay art form, has been around since the 1940s. Abdul Fatah Karim (1980) notes that this musical genre, defined by its unique rhythm, appeared in Malaysia during the same period as the bangsawan theater. Arif Ahmad (2005) describes the singing style of Lagu Melayu Asli as featuring melodic motifs delivered in a gentle, courteous manner, characterized by a medium tempo and a clear, distinct rhythm. He also highlights that the lyrics, often in the form of pantun (poems), combine advice with expressions of affection.

Classified as syncretic music, Lagu Melayu Asli blends elements from both Western and Malay traditions (Mohamed Ghouse Nasuruddin, 1989). Ghouse explains that asli refers to the original, traditional music, distinguished by a unique singing style and specific drum beats. Also known as senandung, this genre stands out for its distinctive style, melody, and rhythm, especially in its use of rebana and gong, which remain unaffected by external influences (Mazlan et al. 2020; Arshad et al. 2022)

According to Ahmad Razli Ayub (2014) and supported by Takari and Fadlin through interviews in Medan, Indonesia in September 2014, the original rhythm of Lagu Melayu Asli is a genuine creation of the Malay people, featuring a unique and inherent rhythm. The texture of traditional Malay songs is polyphonic, with the singing voice, violin, and accordion playing heterophonically—each instrument variations of the same basic melody (Arshad et al. 2022a; Arshad et al. 2022b; Mazlan et al. 2020; Mazlan & Abdullah, 2020; Mazlan, 2021). This includes berbunga (flowery), a form of melodic embellishment that incorporates decorative tones borrowed from Western music, such as acciaccatura, mordent, glissando, turn, and trill. These elements often converge at the end of a phrase to signal the start of a new section or the final beat (Matusky & S.B. Tan, 2012). The timbre of the violin and accordion adds a quality that complements the traditional Malay song, closely resembling the vocal tone (Hassim & Mazlan, 2023)

Objective of The Study

Traditional Malay songs have distinct characteristics and musical elements that set them apart from other genres, particularly those from the West. These unique features give this type of music its own identity, distinguishing it from other songs. Traditional Malay songs are exclusively sung

by the Malay people, primarily those living in regions within the Malay Archipelago, such as the Malay Peninsula, Singapore, certain areas in Sumatra, and Kalimantan in Indonesia. This study aims to analyze the musical characteristics found in traditional Malay songs, including elements such as rhythm, melody, form, texture, lyric and vocal techniques.

METHODOLOGY

The methodology outlined in the study represents a comprehensive approach to understanding the stylistic elements of Lagu Melayu Asli, a traditional Malay music genre. The use of ethnographic methods (Abdullah et al. 2020; Rahman & Nasrifan, 2023; Sulong et al. 2013) coupled with detailed analysis and theoretical frameworks, offers valuable insights into both the musical and cultural dimensions of this genre. Here’s a closer examination of the study’s key components:

Ethnographic Data Collection

Audio and Video Recordings: The study’s reliance on audio and video recordings of live performances is crucial for capturing the authentic practice of Lagu Melayu Asli. These recordings allow for an in-depth examination of performance practices, including nuances that might be missed in written or transcribed forms. Live recordings provide insights into the real- time interpretation of the music, capturing elements such as improvisation, emotional expression, and interaction between performers (Ramli et al. 2021; Safian et al. 2024).

Discography Collection: Including various media formats like vinyl records, cassettes, compact discs, and YouTube ensures a broad spectrum of data. This approach helps in capturing the evolution and variations of the genre over time and across different media. By incorporating these diverse sources, the study can address potential changes in musical style or practice that might have occurred with technological advancements and shifting cultural contexts.

Transcription and Analysis

Transcription into Musical Notation: Transcribing recordings into musical notation is a critical step for detailed analysis (Bao et al. 2024; Chauhan & Mishra, 2024; Shin, 2020). It allows researchers to systematically examine musical elements such as melody, harmony, rhythm, and ornamentation. This process provides a concrete representation of the music that can be analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively (Moses et al. 2021).

Initial Analysis: The initial analysis focuses on identifying and understanding the musical elements present in the transcribed songs. This step is essential for categorizing and describing the features that define Lagu Melayu Asli. It provides a foundation for further analysis by highlighting the core elements of the genre (Bakar & Karim, 2024; Deenerwan & Hadayadanin, 2023; Salleh & Lu, 2024).

Content and Comparative Analyses: Content analysis involves a detailed examination of individual songs to understand their specific characteristics, such as stylistic features and performance practices. Comparative analysis, on the other hand, examines differences and similarities across multiple songs. This helps in identifying common patterns and variations within the genre, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of its stylistic diversity.

Theoretical Framework

Norm of Musical Style Theory: Using Mantle Hood’s Norm of Musical Style theory provides a structured framework for analyzing the musical elements. This theory helps in identifying the standard elements that define the style and understanding how these elements are applied within Lagu Melayu Asli. By selecting relevant musical elements based on this theory, the study ensures a focused and systematic analysis.

Table 1. Norms of Musical Style theory by Mantle Hood, 1971.

Clarification and Validation

Expert Interviews: Conducting interviews with experts in Traditional Malay Songs is a valuable step for addressing any uncertainties or ambiguities encountered during the analysis. These experts provide context and insights that enhance the understanding of complex musical elements. Their input helps refine the analysis and ensures that the interpretations are accurate and culturally informed.

Validation of Findings: Presenting the findings to relevant experts for confirmation adds a layer of credibility to the study. Validation ensures that the conclusions drawn from the analysis are reliable and consistent with expert knowledge. This step is crucial for confirming the study’s accuracy and for gaining acceptance within the scholarly community.

The study’s methodology, which combines ethnographic data collection, systematic transcription and analysis, theoretical frameworks, and expert validation, provides a robust approach to understanding Lagu Melayu Asli. By integrating these methods, the study effectively captures the complexities of the genre and offers a comprehensive analysis of its stylistic characteristics. This approach not only highlights the intricate details of the music but also respects and preserves the cultural context in which it exists.

THE RESULT

As a result of the analysis, several specific themes were identified for discussion. The following are the themes that emerged from the analysis.

Rhythms of Lagu Melayu Asli Song

In traditional Malay music, there are five distinct types of rhythm, namely Joget, Zapin, Masri, Inang and Asli (Syafa’atussara Silahudin, 2009). Each of these rhythms plays a crucial role in defining the character and style of different traditional Malay music genres.

Among these, the Rentak Asli rhythm is particularly notable. It is performed using the rebana, a type of framed drum, and is integral to Lagu Melayu Asli, a traditional Malay musical genre. The tempo for Rentak Asli is relatively slow, ranging from 58 to 65 beats per minute, which contributes to its distinctive, measured feel.

The rhythm of Rentak Asli is structured over an 8-beat pattern within a 2-bar phrase, following a 4/4 meter. In the first bar of the rhythm, the rebana is struck regularly on beats 2, 3, and 4, creating a steady, predictable pattern. In the second bar, the rebana’s strikes occur on beats 1 and 2, with a syncopated emphasis on beat 4. This combination of regular and syncopated beats helps create a nuanced rhythmic texture (Tan S.B. and Matusky, P, 2004).

In addition to the rebana, the gong is also a key component of the Rentak Asli rhythm. It is played on beat 1 of the bar and again twice on beat 7. This use of the gong adds a distinctive percussive element to the rhythm (see Figure 1). According to Ahmad Razli Ayub (2014), the emphasis on the two-gong hits on beat 7 is a defining feature of the Rentak Asli. This characteristic sets the Rentak Asli apart from rhythms used in other musical genres, highlighting its unique contribution to the Lagu Melayu Asli tradition.

Figure 1. Rentak Asli

Pantun verses in Lagu Melayu Asli

Lagu Melayu Asli is fundamentally a form of poem singing, known in Malay as Pantun 4 Kerat, which translates to a four-line verse poem. According to Zaaba (1965), pantun originally served as a medium to convey various themes such as love, poetic advice, natural beauty, and historical narratives about Malay rulers, often embedding messages or meanings in a subtle, indirect manner.

The primary purpose of pantun is to express emotions, offer advice in a gentle way, present riddles, and make conversations more enjoyable. In the context of Lagu Melayu Asli, the pantun is traditionally crafted in a two-part structure known as the AB binary form. In this format, the first part (A) sets up a rhyme, while the second part (B), which rhymes with A, contains the true meaning or message of the poem.

Furthermore, Lagu Melayu Asli can also be described as having a strophic form. This means that the same melody is repeated throughout the performance, adhering to a consistent rhythmic pattern. However, musicians and singers have the freedom to embellish and adapt the melody according to their preferences, skills, and inspirations for each performance. This aspect of Lagu Melayu Asli allows for a personalized expression while maintaining the traditional framework.

The process of pernadaan (musical modality), which involves the performance of this music, requires that singers and musicians respect and follow the established traditions of the song. This ensures that the norms and discipline of the tradition are preserved, reflecting the deep-rooted cultural significance of Lagu Melayu Asli while allowing for individual artistry within its structured format.

Structure of Pantun Seri Mersing

Musical Structure in the Lagu Melayu Asli

In traditional Malay music, several key elements structure the performance of a song, particularly in genres like Lagu Melayu Asli. These elements include the Buka Lagu, Pengantar Lagu, Sendi Lagu and Pemati Lagu (or penutup lagu), each serving a distinct role in the musical narrative.

• Buka Lagu (Introduction): This term refers to the introductory melody of a song. Each traditional Malay song, including those in the Lagu Melayu Asli genre, features its own unique Buka Lagu, setting the stage for the main content of the performance. The Buka Lagu establishes the musical mood and theme, leading smoothly into the main body of the song. It acts as a musical prelude, and the entry of the main melody of the Melayu Asli song follows closely after this introduction.
• Pengantar Lagu (Lead-In): This term describes a sequence of notes chosen from the scale or mode of the tune, which is often played within the first line of the pantun and always after the third The Pengantar Lagu functions as a melodic lead-in to the final line of the pantun, which carries the main meaning of the poem. Its purpose is to bridge the thematic transition from the preceding lines to the concluding line. The last note of the Pengantar Lagu is crafted to lead seamlessly into the melody of the last line, ensuring a coherent flow of the musical and lyrical narrative.
• Sendi Lagu (Melodic Bridge): Known as a melodic bridge, Sendi Lagu is crucial for linking different sections of the The term ‘Sendi’ means ‘joint’ in Malay, reflecting its role in connecting musical phrases. Typically played after the second line and before the fourth line of the pantun, and again before the Buka Lagu for the next pantun, the Sendi Lagu serves to bridge the first two lines with the last two lines of the pantun. Unlike the Pengantar Lagu, Sendi Lagu is generally longer and more elaborate, helping to create a smooth transition between the thematic segments of the pantun.
• Pemati Lagu/Penutup Lagu (Closing/Ending): These terms refer to the closing or ending melodic phrases of the song. When two pantun (dua kerat pantun) are performed, the Pemati Lagu marks the conclusion of the song. In certain pieces like Seri Mersing, the Sendi Lagu is used as the Pemati Lagu and is played progressively slower (ritardando) to signal the song’s ending. In other songs, such as Makan Sireh and Bunga Tanjung, the closing melody itself serves as the penutup lagu, bringing the performance to a natural and cohesive finish.

Each of these elements plays a vital role in maintaining the structure and emotional flow of traditional Malay music, ensuring that the performance remains engaging and true to its cultural roots.

Overall Structure of Lagu Melayu Asli

The overall structure of Lagu Melayu Asli integrates these components into a coherent musical form:

• Introduction: The Buka Lagu introduces the
• Verse 1: The first pantun is performed, beginning with its initial lines, followed by the Pengantar Lagu.
• Melodic Bridge: The Sendi Lagu connects the first and last lines of the
• Verse 2: The second pantun is presented, often with a repetition or variation of the
• Closing: The Pemati Lagu or penutup lagu provides a concluding musical phrase, signaling the end of the performance.

This structured approach allows Lagu Melayu Asli to maintain its traditional roots while allowing for individual expression within a defined framework.

The score of the song Seri Mersing below shows the Buka Lagu (Introduction) and Pengantar Lagu (Lead-In) sections.

Figure 2: Buka Lagu and Pengantar Lagu in music notations

The Performance Style of Lagu Melayu Asli

In traditional Malay music, particularly in the genre of Lagu Melayu Asli, various terms are used to describe different types of melodic embellishments that enhance the expressiveness and emotional depth of the performance. These terms include lenggok, bunga, gerenek, air lagu, and patah lagu. Each of these elements contributes to the intricate and nuanced delivery of the song, adding layers of meaning and feeling to the performance.

Key Terms for Melodic Embellishments:

• Lenggok : This term refers to the stylistic nuances and subtle variations in melody that convey the emotional tone of the song. Lenggok involves changes in pitch, rhythm, and dynamics that make the performance more expressive and It reflects the singer’s or musician’s ability to infuse personal interpretation and feeling into the melody.
• Bunga : Bunga denotes melodic embellishments or decorative flourishes added to the main These can include trills, runs, and other ornamental figures that enhance the beauty and complexity of the music. Bunga is crucial for adding interest and depth to the melody, making it more captivating and dynamic.
• Gerenek : This term describes specific rhythmic and melodic variations that are often used to add complexity and flair to the music. Gerenek includes variations in the rhythmic patterns and melodic phrases that deviate from the main theme, providing a sense of spontaneity and creativity.
• Air Lagu : Air Lagu refers to the overall melodic line or theme of the It encompasses the main tune around which the various embellishments are built. The air lagu serves as the foundation upon which ornamentations such as lenggok, bunga, and gerenek are applied.
• Patah Lagu : This term refers to breaks or pauses within the melody that provide a momentary suspension of the These pauses can add dramatic effect and emphasize certain parts of the song, contributing to the overall expressiveness.

Regional Differences in Practice: 

In Malaysia, the practice of Lagu Melayu Asli often involves the use of these embellishments without explicitly referring to the technical terms such as gerenek or lenggok. Musicians and singers typically perform these ornamentations intuitively, focusing more on the emotional and stylistic aspects of the music rather than the specific terminologies. The term bunga lagu is commonly used in Malaysia to refer to all forms of embellishments collectively, without distinguishing between the different types.

In contrast, in Medan, Indonesia, where Melayu Deli is practiced, the use of specific terms like gerenek and cengkok is more prevalent. Practitioners in this region are accustomed to using these terms regularly to describe the various melodic and rhythmic embellishments. The precise terminology reflects a more formalized approach to ornamentation in Melayu Deli, where musicians and singers are trained to use these techniques with specific intent and clarity.

Distinctive Aspect of Lagu Melayu Asli :

According to Ahmad Razli Ayub (2014), one of the distinctive aspects of Lagu Melayu Asli is the way practitioners approach the music. He notes that “we play the music as if we are singing the melody…” which emphasizes the seamless integration of vocal and instrumental elements. This approach highlights the expressive and emotive nature of the performance, where the technical aspects of ornamentation are less about rigid adherence to terminology and more about conveying feeling and interpretation through the music.

Overall, while the specific terms for melodic embellishments may vary between regions, the essence of Lagu Melayu Asli lies in its ability to convey deep emotional expression through a combination of melody, rhythm, and ornamentation.

DISCUSSION

Lagu Melayu Asli represents a rich and nuanced tradition within Malay music, characterized by its distinctive structure and expressive ornamentation. This genre’s melodic and lyrical complexity is embodied through various musical elements and embellishments, which play a crucial role in defining its emotional and stylistic identity.

Ornamentation and Embellishment

The terms lenggok, bunga, gerenek, air lagu and patah lagu each describe specific types of melodic and rhythmic embellishments that enhance the expressiveness of Lagu Melayu Asli. Lenggok introduces stylistic nuances and emotional depth, while bunga adds decorative flourishes to the melody. Gerenek contributes rhythmic and melodic variations, and air lagu refers to the foundational melodic line. Patah lagu incorporates breaks that emphasize certain parts of the song. Together, these elements ensure that the performance of Lagu Melayu Asli is not just a mechanical rendition but a deeply expressive experience.

Regional Variations

The practice of these embellishments differs notably between Malaysia and Medan, Indonesia. In Malaysia, musicians often use the term bunga lagu to broadly cover all forms of embellishments without delving into specific technical details. This approach reflects a more intuitive, less terminologically focused practice where musicians prioritize emotional expression and personal interpretation over technical precision. Conversely, in Medan, the use of specific terms like gerenek and cengkok demonstrates a more formalized and precise approach to ornamentation. Practitioners in this region are more likely to use these terms as part of their technical vocabulary, reflecting a structured understanding of musical embellishments.

Expressiveness and Technique

Ahmad Razli Ayub’s observation that practitioners ‘play the music as if we are singing the melody’ highlights a fundamental aspect of Lagu Melayu Asli. The emphasis on blending vocal and instrumental elements underscores the genre’s focus on expressiveness and emotional delivery. This perspective suggests that the essence of Lagu Melayu Asli lies not just in adhering to specific technical terms but in capturing the emotive and interpretive qualities of the music. The performative approach, whether in Malaysia or Indonesia, reflects a deep-seated tradition of merging musical technique with personal artistry.

CONCLUSION

Lagu Melayu Asli serves as a vibrant and expressive manifestation of traditional Malay music, characterized by its intricate structures, rich ornamentation, and emotive performance styles that captivate audiences. This study has illuminated significant stylistic features such as rhythmic patterns, melodic motifs, and the roles of various instruments, as well as the lyrical elements that define the genre. Notably, specialized ornamentation techniques including mordent, acciaccatura, and glissando enhance the expressive quality of performances.

Terms like lenggok, bunga, gerenek, air lagu, and patah lagu further enrich the vocabulary needed to appreciate the genre’s depth and melodic variation. A comparison between regional practices reveals a fascinating dichotomy: Malaysia’s intuitive and expressive approach contrasts sharply with Medan’s more formalized and terminologically structured style.

These differences highlight the genre’s adaptability and cultural richness, illustrating how Lagu Melayu Asli retains its emotional resonance while evolving within diverse contexts. Ultimately, this genre exemplifies the intricate relationship between technical mastery and personal expression, reinforcing its significance in both traditional and contemporary musical landscapes. This research not only enhances our understanding of Lagu Melayu Asli but also underscores its vital role as an essential component of Malaysia’s intangible cultural heritage, deserving preservation and appreciation in today’s globalized world.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to acknowledge and express our thanks to Sultan Idris Education University (UPSI) for the good facilities and funds under University Research Grants 2019- 0067-107-01. This article is part of the research entitled Pembangunan Video Pembelajaran Permainan Akordian Lagu Melayu Asli bagi Persekitaran Pembelajaran Teradun.

REFERENCES

1. Abdul Fatah Karim. (1980). Lagu Melayu Asli. In Kertas Kerja, Pameran Alat-alat Muzik Tradisional Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya.
2. Abdullah, M. H., Ramli, N. A. M., Nasrifan, M. N., Rahim, M. A. & Sulong, M. A. (2020). Aree Lkhua Song: A Musicological Analysis of Pakapel Tradition Among the Kelabit Tribe in the Upper Baram River, Sarawak. International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation, 24(9). 2098-2106. https://doi.org/10.37200/IJPR/V24I9/PR290236
3. Arshad, S. F., Mazlan, C. A. N., Uyub, A. I., Yatim, L. S. M., & Ayderova, V. (2022a). Take a Peek! Into Lagu Melayu Asli. Jurnal Seni Musik, 11(1), 32-38. https://doi.org/10.15294/jsm.v11i1.54685
4. Arshad, S. F., Sulong, M. A., Hashim, Z., & Mazlan, C. A. N. (2022b). Perspective on blended learning for instrumental music learning. Journal of Positive School Psychology, 6(3), 4936-4941. http://184.168.115.16/index.php/jpsp/article/view/2700/1731
5. Bakar, N. A. A. & Karim, K. M. (2024). Harmontradiloka: Konsep Baharu Dalam Persembahan Nyanyian Lagu Tradisional Melayu: Harmontradiloka: A New Concept in the Performance of Traditional Malay Songs. Jurai Sembah, 5(2), 10-27. https://doi.org/10.37134/juraisembah.vol5.2.2.2024
6. Bao, N., Chang, Y. L. & Cheong, K. W. (2024). The Differences in 21st-Century 4C Skills Among Diverse University Choirs in China. Malaysian Journal of Music, 13(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.37134//mjm.vol13.1.1.2024
7. Che Mat Jusoh. (2006). Sejarah Lagu Melayu Asli. Pentas (September & October edition). Kuala Lumpur: Istana Budaya.
8. Chauhan, M. & Mishra, S. (2024). Creating Place: The Role of Festival, Kajarī Folk Songs, and Rituals in Mirzapur. Malaysian Journal of Music, 13(2), 62-76. https://doi.org/10.37134//mjm.vol13.2.4.2024
9. Deenerwan, M. & Hadayadanin, R. F. R. (2023). Femme Fatale: Representasi Antagonis Wanita Dalam Filem Bollywood Arahan Vikram Bhatt: Femme Fatale: Representation of Female Antagonists in Bollywood Films Directed by Vikram Bhatt. Jurai Sembah, 4(1), 21-29. https://doi.org/10.37134/juraisembah.vol4.1.3.2023
10. Hassim, D. S. H. A. & Mazlan, C. A. N. (2023). Internal and external factors that influence students’ persistent participation in music learning. Jurai Sembah, 4(2), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.37134/juraisembah.vol4.2.1.2023
11. Hood, M. (1971). The ethnomusicologist and the study of musical style. In The Study of Ethnomusicology: Thirty-One Issues and Concepts (pp. 53-60). University of Illinois Press.
12. Lu, L. & Salleh, M. (2024). Jazz Singing and Musicianship in China. Jurai Sembah, 5(2), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.37134/juraisembah.vol5.2.1.2024
13. Mazlan, C. A. N., Abdullah, M. H., Arshad, S. F., Abdul Latif, M. K., Mohd Imam, R., & Daud, S. (2020). Satu Tinjauan Muzikologi Lagu Melayu Asli. Jurai Sembah, 1(2), 14-26. https://doi.org/10.37134/juraisembah.vol1.2.2.2020
14. Mazlan, C. A. N., & Abdullah, M. H. (2020). Utilizing pragmatism principles in learning jazz guitar reharmonization technique using Malay Asli song. International Journal of Applied and Creative Arts, 3(1), 54-66. https://doi.org/10.33736/ijaca.2188.2020
15. Matusky, P., & Tan, S. B. (2012). Muzik Malaysia: Tradisi Klasik, Rakyat dan Sinkretik. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya.
16. Mohd. Ghouse Nasuruddin. (1989). Muzik Melayu Tradisi. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
17. Mohd. Taib Osman. (1984). Bunga Rampai: Aspects of Malay Culture. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
18. Moses, s., Fyr, K. R. & Chiengchana, N. (2021). The Current Status of Elementary Music Education in Yangon, Myanmar. Malaysian Journal of Music, 10(1), 53-71. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol10.1.4.2021
19. Rahman, A. S. A., & Nasrifan, M. N. (2023). Pewarisan Budaya melalui aktiviti Kokurikulum di Sekolah: Ensembel Muzik Tumbuk Kalang Negeri Sembilan: Cultural Inheritance through Co-curricular activities at School: Tumbuk Kalang Music Ensemble Negeri Sembilan. Jurnal                       Peradaban                               Melayu,                        18(1),                        33-47. https://doi.org/10.37134/peradaban.vol18.1.4.2023
20. Ramli, N. A., Mazlan, C. A. N., Abdullah, M. H., & Uyub, A. I. (2021). E-Learning Gamelan Ensemble          Playing              Techniques.            Jurnal                       Seni            Musik,               10(1),       1-4. https://doi.org/10.15294/jsm.v10i1.44076
21. Safian, A. R., Saidon, Z. L., Nasrifan, M. N., Djahwasi, H. R., Sampurno, M. B. T., Mazlan, C. N. & Koning, S. I. (2024). Design and Development of e-MARZ: A Practical Guide to Implementing Cost-effective VR Experiences for Music Education. Journal of Advanced Research in Applied Sciences and Engineering Technology, 40(1), 129–145. https://doi.org/10.37934/araset.40.1.129145
22. Shin, J. (2020). Self-directed Learning in Music Teacher Education: Perspectives from Pre- service Music Teachers in South Korea. Malaysian Journal of Music, 9, 29-41. https://doi.org/10.37134/mjm.vol9.3.2020
23. Sulong, M. A., Saidon, Z. L. & Hashim, N. S. N. (2013) Muzik Tradisi Tari Rakyat Perak:Suatu Pendekatan Etnomuzikologi. Malaysian Music Journal, 2 (1). pp. 72-105. https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/MJM/article/view/647/424
24. Shafa’atussara Silahudin. (2009). Lagu Melayu Asli: Stylistik Nyanyian Sebagai Wahana Seni Melayu (Unpublished master’s thesis). Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.
25. Suflan Faidzal Arshad. (2015). Lenggok, Bunga dan Gerenek: Analisis Stilistik Lagu Melayu Asli secara Instrumental (Unpublished master’s dissertation). Aswara, Kuala Lumpur.