Metacognitive Strategies for English Proficiency: A Study on Primary School Learners’ Self-Regulated Learning

Metacognitive Strategies for English Proficiency: A Study on Primary School Learners’ Self-Regulated Learning

Nur Shahira Mohd Salim^{1, 2}, Fatimah Az-Zahrah Zulmaidi^{1, 3}, Nur Syazwani Nasir^{1, 4}, Abhirahmih Rajan^{1, 5}, Nor Irnahanis Sofia Ismail^{1, 6}, Harwati Hashim¹

¹ Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor

² SJKC Tanah Mas, Bidor, Perak

³ SK Tanjong Gading, Tangkak, Johor

⁴ SK Kampong Tengah, Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu

⁵ SK Bandar Easter, Kota Tinggi, Johor

⁶ SK Pandan Indah, Ampang, Selangor

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.90600083

Received: 21 May 2025; Accepted: 27 May 2025; Published: 01 July 2025

ABSTRACT

Metacognitive strategies help learners regulate their language learning by planning, monitoring, and evaluating their progress. However, young learners often lack the metacognitive awareness needed to apply these strategies effectively, which may hinder their English proficiency. This study examined how primary school pupils used metacognitive strategies in reading, writing, listening, and speaking. A basic qualitative research design was utilised, using semi-structured interviews with 30 purposely selected pupils aged 10 to 12 from two national primary schools in Malaysia. Participants were chosen based on their active engagement in English lessons and varying proficiency levels. Thematic analysis revealed that planning was the most consistently used strategy, especially in reading, writing, and speaking. Monitoring was applied to a moderate extent, often relying on external feedback such as teacher guidance or peer reactions. Evaluation was the least developed, usually limited to surface-level checks rather than deeper reflection. These findings emphasise the need for explicit modelling, guided reflection, and integrated strategy instruction in the ESL classroom. The study provides practical implications for teachers to support metacognitive growth through structured planning tools, monitoring prompts, and post-task reflection activities. Future research could explore the longitudinal development of strategy use or examine how contextual factors such as curriculum design or home support influence metacognitive learning.

Keywords: English language proficiency, Language learning strategies, Metacognition, Primary school learners, Self-regulated learning

INTRODUCTION

Metacognitive strategies refer to learners’ ability to plan, monitor, and evaluate their own learning processes. Techniques such as goal setting, self-questioning, and reflection enable learners to become more aware of their strengths and weaknesses, leading to informed decision-making when engaging with language tasks (Rivas et al., 2022). When applied effectively, these strategies enhance self-regulated learning (SRL), empowering learners to take greater control of their academic development (Saint et al., 2022).

English proficiency plays a central role in learners’ academic and personal growth, especially at the primary level. In many educational contexts, English functions not only as a subject but also as a medium for accessing knowledge and digital resources (Tai & Zhao, 2024). Early exposure to the language supports literacy development, confidence, and learner engagement (Hyland, 2022). Prior research consistently shows that metacognitive strategies benefit second language acquisition, particularly in reading comprehension, vocabulary development, and writing tasks (Sánchez Arroba, 2024). Learners with strong metacognitive awareness tend to exhibit greater autonomy, motivation, and achievement (Shekh-Abed, 2025).

However, much of the existing literature focuses on secondary and tertiary learners, assuming that metacognitive strategy use is more relevant at later stages of cognitive maturity (Muhammadiah et al., 2024; Ruiz-Martín & Bybee, 2022). Consequently, there is limited understanding of how younger learners, especially primary school pupils, develop and apply metacognitive strategies in the context of English language learning. Given that primary education marks a critical period for both cognitive and linguistic development, it is essential to investigate how these learners engage in self-regulated learning and strategy use (Öztürk & Çakıroğlu, 2021).

Research on this topic can support teachers in designing instruction that nurtures metacognitive growth through explicit modelling, guided reflection, and structured strategy use. Understanding how young learners plan, monitor, and evaluate their English learning processes offers valuable insights into fostering early language proficiency and long-term learner autonomy.

Therefore, this study aims to explore how primary school pupils in Malaysia apply metacognitive strategies to enhance their English proficiency. Specifically, it investigates their use of planning, monitoring, and evaluation strategies in reading, writing, listening, and speaking tasks within an ESL classroom context.

LITERATURE REVIEW

This section reviews existing literature related to metacognitive strategies in language learning, particularly within the context of English language acquisition among primary school learners. It begins by outlining the concept and theoretical foundations of metacognition, followed by a discussion on how these strategies are applied across the four key language skills: reading, writing, listening, and speaking. The review also highlights relevant empirical studies to support the understanding of how metacognitive strategies influence English proficiency development among young learners.

Metacognitive Strategies in Language Learning

Metacognitive strategies are higher-level cognitive skills that help pupils plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning process (Flavell, 1979). These methods are particularly important in English learning, as they enable learners to take control of their own education and enhance their language abilities (Mahadi et al., 2021). Flavell (1979) introduced the concept of metacognition, emphasizing three key processes: planning, monitoring, and evaluation. Expanding on this foundational framework, Oxford (1990) situated these processes within language acquisition by recognising them as metacognitive strategies that help learners to manage and regulate their learning. These approaches enable pupils to cultivate independence and strategic insight in their language acquisition (Anderson, 2008).

Metacognitive strategies are also strongly associated with motivational beliefs. Zimmerman and Moylan (2009) highlight that intrinsic task value and self-expectations of learners affect their dedication to self-regulation. In language acquisition, metacognitive strategies influence how learners establish objectives, monitor their advancement, and evaluate their results. Educators’ roles are important in this process by supporting learners in establishing attainable goals, foreseeing obstacles, and creating tasks that encourage strategic thinking (Zhang & Zou, 2022). These techniques, such as summarizing and taking notes, assist learners in handling their learning more efficiently (Parra-Gavilánez, 2023).

Metacognitive Strategies in English Proficiency Development

Metacognitive strategies play an important role in the development of English language proficiency, particularly in helping learners in managing and regulating their use of language across different skills. In the context of primary ESL learners, these strategies support pupils in becoming more aware of how they learn, and how they can improve their performance in reading, writing, listening, and speaking. This section reviews how metacognitive strategies are applied within each language skill, supported by recent research that highlights their impact on learner autonomy, comprehension, and overall language development.

Reading Comprehension

Metacognitive strategies are essential for reading comprehension as they allow pupils to actively interact with texts through processes like predicting, monitoring, and assessing their understanding. These strategies prompt pupils to predict content prior to reading, thereby stimulating their cognitive activities for enhanced comprehension. For instance, Hendaryan and Noviadi (2023) emphasize how predictive skills improve inferential reading abilities, enabling pupils to foresee new information and merge it with their existing knowledge. This is consistent with Navarro (2021) and Ceylan and Harputlu (2015), who highlight that linking current knowledge with new information enhances learners’ understanding and memory.

Research also consistently demonstrates that pupils trained in metacognitive strategies outperform those who do not receive such instruction (Usman et al., 2017). In a quasi-experimental study involving 40 Thai EFL university pupils, Wichadee (2011) found that those who received explicit metacognitive strategy training demonstrated significantly higher reading scores and positive feedback among the pupils. This suggests that metacognitive strategies are not just beneficial but essential for effective reading comprehension.

Moreover, metacognitive awareness fosters engagement with texts. pupils who monitor their comprehension are better at recognising difficulties and adjusting their reading strategies accordingly (Pahrizal et al., 2024; Khonamri & Kojidi, 2011; Dehn, 1997).  In a study on Grade 7 L2 learners’ reading comprehension, Bonganciso (2022) found that learners’ ability to flexibly modify their reading approaches depends on the complexity of the text and their level of understanding. This adaptability is a key characteristic of metacognitively skilled readers, emphasizing the importance of flexibility as a core aspect of reading proficiency (Bonganciso, 2022).

Apart from improving comprehension, metacognitive strategies also contribute to learners’ confidence and motivation. Al-Ghazo (2016) reported that metacognitive strategies contribute to enhanced pupils’ confidence and motivation, while Bouknify (2023) and Jugas (2024) argued that these strategies enhance learners’ self-efficacy and engagement, leading to higher academic achievement. Similarly, Döş and Asli (2024) find that pupils with higher metacognitive awareness participate more actively in discussions and learning activities, reinforcing the broader academic benefits of these strategies. Taken together, these findings indicate that metacognitive skills not only improve reading proficiency, but also foster a more engaged and self-directed approach to learning.

Writing Skills

Writing is a cognitively demanding task that requires learners to plan, monitor, and revise their ideas systematically. Metacognitive strategies are therefore essential in helping pupils regulate the various stages of the writing process from prewriting to revision. These strategies positively influence content quality, organisation, grammar, and mechanics (Winarto, 2022). pupils who employ metacognitive approaches tend to be more aware of their cognitive processes and are better able to manage and improve their written work. They also develop a more positive attitude toward writing, recognising the value of strategic thinking and self-regulation (Tyfekci & Dujaka, 2017; Al-Jarrah et al., 2018).

In a mixed-method study with postgraduate pupils in Indonesia, Gloria and Mbato (2023) discovered that while many participants were motivated by external factors to write academic texts, individuals exhibiting metacognitive awareness were better at handling the challenges of academic writing. The research also emphasized the relationship between motivation and self-regulation, noting that both internal and external elements affect learners’ writing actions. Successful writers typically start by establishing specific objectives, arranging their thoughts, and refining their drafts to improve clarity and coherence.

Planning helps create a structured outline, which leads to better textual cohesion (Riwayatiningsih et al., 2024). Meanwhile, monitoring during writing enables pupils to track their progress, assess the alignment between their output and intended message, and revise content, language, or organisation as needed (Roslaini & Dwiyanti, 2023; Jufrizal & Dewita, 2020; Reynolds & Satariyan, 2015). Through these strategies, learners can express their arguments more clearly and purposefully, contributing to stronger and more effective written communication.

Speaking Proficiency

Speaking is a productive and frequently impromptu skill, which imposes distinct cognitive requirements that necessitate real-time management and contemplation, rendering metacognitive awareness a crucial component in improving speaking abilities. These approaches entail pupils’ intentional control of their thought processes while engaging in speaking tasks, fostering more efficient communication.

Studies show that effective language learners often employ metacognitive strategies to enhance their speaking skills. Research has indicated that effective language learners intentionally engage in self-correction and repetition to enhance their speaking skills. For example, learners who actively plan with clear goals and monitor their own progress often demonstrate enhanced speaking complexity and fluency (Paterson, 2021; Samad & Kafryawan, 2021). Such strategies also enable them to structure their ideas effectively and anticipate potential challenges during speaking tasks.

Additionally, mindful attention to language input is another metacognitive aspect noted by effective language learners. In a research conducted by Lee & Heinz (2016), subjects showed significant active involvement by concentrating on input, interpreting meaning, and striving to apply the language contextually, as opposed to depending on passive exposure like playing English media in the background. This emphasis corresponds with the self-regulatory characteristic of metacognitive strategies and demonstrates how learners oversee and modify their language exposure to achieve their communication objectives.

Furthermore, self-assessment acts as a valuable metacognitive instrument that promotes pupils to contemplate their speaking experiences and identify particular aspects needing enhancement. Studies indicate that pupils who practice regular reflection often attain improved speaking results, as they gain a clearer understanding of their strengths and the aspects that require enhancement (Paterson, 2021; Luviana et al., 2022). This self-awareness enables learners to manage their learning process and utilise specific techniques to enhance their spoken language.

Listening

Metacognitive strategies are also important in the development of listening skills. In English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts, these strategies help learners focus on important information, predict meaning, and adjust their listening techniques based on the demands of different tasks and contexts (Yuan & Chunrong, 2023). In a study by Chou (2017), metacognitive strategies were integrated into task-based listening instruction for university pupils in Taiwan. The findings showed that pupils who received strategy-embedded, task-based lessons demonstrated greater improvement in both listening comprehension and metacognitive strategy use compared to those who received traditional strategy instruction.

Furthermore, research also highlights positive correlation between metacognitive awareness and listening performance. For example, studies employing the ‘Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire’ (MALQ) consistently indicate that learners with greater metacognitive awareness tend to achieve better listening comprehension and show more advanced mastery of sub skills such as inferencing and monitoring comprehension (Fu et al., 2023; Payaprom, 2022).

In addition to performance outcomes, metacognitive strategies have been linked to affective factors such as listening anxiety and self-efficacy. Su (2024) found that learners with higher metacognitive awareness tended to perform better in listening tasks and experienced less anxiety. The study also highlighted that both metacognitive awareness and listening anxiety played a meaningful role in influencing pupils’ listening, suggesting that developing metacognitive skills may also help reduce learners’ anxiety and improve their comprehension. Meanwhile, Payaprom (2022) found that enhancing metacognitive awareness and self-efficacy significantly improves listening skills in EFL learners. The study reported strong positive correlations between both metacognitive awareness and listening comprehension, as well as between self-efficacy and listening proficiency, suggesting that instruction should target both areas to boost listening performance.

Incorporating multimedia resources like videos, podcasts, and visuals has been shown to improve pupils’ listening understanding (Wijayanti, 2021). New findings also endorse the efficacy of collaborative and multimedia-oriented methods in teaching metacognitive listening skills. In a research investigation regarding the effectiveness of technology-driven listening education, specifically within English as a Foreign Language (EFL) settings conducted by Bozorgian & Shamsi (2022), results indicated that pupils showed a favourable attitude towards employing metacognitive strategies for enhancing listening skills via podcasts. The research showed that pupils held positive views of multimedia-supported listening tasks, emphasizing that this approach provided additional hints that aided comprehension and participation.

In conclusion, the research demonstrates that metacognitive strategies, especially those supported by technology and multimedia, enhance listening comprehension and positively influence learners’ emotional responses and self-regulation during listening tasks.

Self-Regulated Learning in English Language Acquisition

Self-regulated learning (SRL) is a complex process in which pupils actively manage their learning by establishing goals, tracking their progress, and evaluating the results (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2012). At the core of SRL is the intentional management of learners’ cognitive, emotional, and behavioural processes to attain academic success (Zimmerman & Moylan, 2009). Zimmerman (2002) defines SRL as a cyclical framework that includes forethought (which involves planning and goal setting), performance (encompassing strategy use and self-monitoring), and self-reflection (focusing on evaluation and adjustment).

Within the context of English language learning, SRL enables pupils to autonomously oversee their motivation, learning techniques, and overall involvement, thus promoting enhanced learner independence and continuous advancement Zhao and Liao (2021). Consequently, metacognitive strategies are shaped by motivation as well, and are essential to self-regulated learning, allowing learners to effectively oversee their cognitive processes while performing tasks.

Narengaowa and Tungalag (2024) emphasize that structured guidance from educators also fosters self-regulation and social interaction among young learners. Similarly, Fernandez and Guilbert (2024) show that metacognitive techniques, especially via the Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) approach, improve primary pupils’ writing skills by boosting their planning, organisation, and self-assessment abilities. Efklides and Metallidou (2020) along with Joseph (2003) emphasize the importance of metacognitive strategies in promoting pupils’ autonomous and efficient learning within academic environments. Consequently, teaching methods, including direct strategy instruction and teacher support, highlight the significance of metacognitive strategies to improve pupils’ academic performance.

Metacognitive strategies are frequently viewed as a key element of SRL since they equip learners with the means to plan, track, and assess their language usage efficiently (Pintrich, 2000; Oxford, 2017). Nevertheless, SRL encompasses motivational beliefs, behavioural involvement, and emotional control, which are especially pertinent for young learners who might struggle with maintaining attention or handling frustration during challenging language activities (Jaafar & Awaludin, 2014; Pajares, 2008). For instance, research conducted by Min & Foon (2019) has recognised different signs of behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement in participants as they regulated their learning in ‘Massive Open Online Course’ (MOOC).

Building upon the SRL framework, Oxford’s (2017) Strategic Self-Regulation (S²R) model emphasizes three essential dimensions: self-regulation, agency, and autonomy, which collaboratively promote language learning. In Oxford’s (2017) model, as outlined by Redmer (2022), ‘agency’ denotes learners’ confidence in their capacity to impact tasks, while ‘autonomy’ indicates their readiness and capability to learn on their own. Consequently, these factors improve the strategic and metacognitive aspects of self-regulated learning, rendering them especially significant in language classrooms where personal involvement and learner autonomy are crucial.

In primary education, research has indicated a positive correlation between self-regulation and language skills, particularly in reading fluency and literacy (Duckworth & Schoon, 2010; Mason, 2018). Thus, when pupils possess SRL strategies, they can modify their methods for learning tasks and retain a sense of control over their growth. For instance, establishing goals and self-monitoring enable learners to monitor their vocabulary enhancement or reading proficiency (Adam et al., 2017), whereas self-assessment encourages reflection post writing or speaking activities (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2012). Therefore, this feeling of independence and accountability enhances lasting motivation and more profound involvement in the language.

Recent studies have also shown that instructional practices such as explicit SRL training and teacher scaffolding significantly enhance young learners’ self-regulation capacities. Jasmi et al. (2012) highlight that self-regulation can be developed through teacher modelling, where pupils learn by observing and interacting with teachers who demonstrate effective learning strategies. Similarly, in the EFL classroom, incorporating SRL strategies into listening and speaking tasks has shown to improve learners’ confidence and reduce performance anxiety (Suratullah et al., 2023; Payaprom, 2022).

In summary, incorporating SRL into English language teaching not only enhances academic results but also fosters the growth of lifelong learning abilities. Particularly for early learners, encouraging self-regulation establishes the basis for ongoing language development and learner independence, both crucial for managing multilingual and multicultural contexts.

METHODOLOGY

This study employed semi-structured interviews as the primary data collection method. The structure and rationale of the interview format are detailed below.

Research Design

This study utilised a basic qualitative research design, using semi-structured interviews to investigate the ways in which primary school pupils employ metacognitive strategies in their English language acquisition. A qualitative method was suitable because it required an in-depth understanding of pupils’ cognitive and reflective processes, which are difficult to obtain through quantitative means (Sani & Maharani, 2022). Semi-structured interviews enabled the researcher to guide the discussion while offering the flexibility to explore answers and clarify the responses (Vaughn & Turner, 2020). This approach was especially ideal for young learners, as it facilitated a more natural and structured type of interaction. Overall, this study aimed to explore participants’ use of metacognitive strategies through descriptive, experience-based data without comparing schools as distinct cases.

Participants

The research included 30 primary pupils aged 10 to 12 from two national schools situated in two different states in Malaysia. A purposive sampling approach was utilised, where teachers recommended participants based on their involvement and participation in English language learning activities. Specific selection criteria included pupils who regularly engaged in English classroom tasks (e.g., speaking activities, reading aloud), demonstrated interest in learning, and represented a range of English proficiency levels based on teacher assessments.

Fifteen participants were chosen from each school to guarantee a variety of skill levels and to obtain diverse viewpoints on the use of metacognitive strategies (Etikan, 2021). All participants and their parents gave informed consent before the study began. Ethical permission was secured from the appropriate institutional and school bodies to guarantee adherence to research protocols concerning minors. To protect participants’ privacy, pseudonyms were used, and audio files were stored securely with restricted access.3.3 Data Collection Method

Interview Format

Semi-structured interviews were carried out with open-ended questions aimed at obtaining pupils’ thoughts on their learning experiences. This format was selected to cater to the developmental and linguistic skills of primary-aged pupils, allowing them to articulate their ideas openly (Nowell & Albrecht, 2020). Questions were designed based on three fundamental metacognitive processes: planning, monitoring, and evaluating in relation to the four English language skills: reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Interview questions were adapted from established metacognitive strategy frameworks (Oxford, 2017; Zhou & Wang, 2022), and reviewed for age appropriateness. A pilot test with two pupils was conducted to ensure clarity and suitability for the target age group.

Interview Environment

All interviews took place in a welcoming, child-friendly setting like the school library or classroom, to alleviate anxiety and enhance comfort. Interviews were documented with the consent of the participants and their guardians. When audio recording was impractical, comprehensive field notes were made to guarantee the precision and thoroughness of responses.

Interview Questions

This study modified questions based on three fundamental metacognitive strategies: planning, monitoring, and evaluating, which span the four English skills: reading, writing, listening, and speaking (Zhou & Wang, 2022). Example inquiries included:

“How do you get ready before reading a story in English?” (Planning – Reading)

“What do you do if you don’t understand a word while reading or listening?” (Monitoring – Reading/Listening)

“How do you check if your writing is correct?” (Evaluating – Writing)

“What do you think about before you speak in English in class?” (Planning – Speaking)

These questions were designed to support self-reflection and promote cognitive awareness of learners’ strategies during language tasks (Lo & Lin, 2023).

Data Analysis

The data were examined through thematic analysis, which is a suitable approach for recognising and interpreting trends in qualitative data (Braun & Clarke, 2022). The procedure adhered to Braun and Clarke’s six-phase framework:

Familiarisation with the data through repeated reading of transcripts;

Creating preliminary codes derived from metacognitive actions (e.g., strategizing prior to reading, assessing written work);

Searching for themes that align with the three primary strategy categories;

Examining themes concerning the four language abilities (reading, writing, listening, speaking);

Identifying and labeling themes to enhance understanding and coherence;

Creating the report, incorporating analysis of patterns in relation to existing literature.

The themes were subsequently aligned with each of the four English skills to enhance understanding of how metacognitive strategies were utilised across different areas. Coding was conducted manually by the researcher using colour-coded tables in Microsoft Excel. A second reviewer was consulted for peer debriefing to validate the coding structure and thematic labels. In addition, triangulation involved comparing coded themes with existing literature to ensure credibility, and peer debriefing was performed to improve the trustworthiness of the results (Nowell et al., 2017).

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This section presents findings from semi-structured interviews carried out with primary school pupils, demonstrating how young learners employ metacognitive strategies: planning, monitoring, and evaluating to enhance their English language abilities. The results showed that while pupils engaged in self-regulated learning tasks, their use of strategies varied across the four main language skills: reading, writing, listening, and speaking.

Primary School Pupils’ Use of Metacognitive Strategies to Improve English Skills

Thematic analysis of the responses revealed that most learners engaged in planning strategies more frequently and with greater confidence, particularly in activities that allowed for preparation and practice. Monitoring strategies were observed less often, often relying on external cues or help from educators. Among pupils, assessment was the least developed, as many struggled to reflect on their performance beyond simple corrections. These findings are consistent with existing literature, showing that the application of metacognitive strategies develops slowly and often requires clear modelling and reinforcement in classroom settings (Adler et al., 2016; Oxford, 1990). The subsequent subsections explain how pupils utilised each metacognitive strategy in relation to language skills, accompanied by direct quotes and thematic analyses.

Planning Strategies

Planning emerged as a commonly reported strategy among pupils, particularly in reading, writing, and speaking tasks. Many learners described pre-task behaviours that reflect goal-setting, material preparation, and cognitive readiness. These actions align with the planning component in metacognitive strategy frameworks, where learners are expected to organise their thoughts and resources before engaging in learning tasks (Ku & Ho, 2010).

In reading, pupils demonstrated early engagement strategies such as previewing text features. For example, one pupil explained, “I look at the pictures and the title first to guess what the story is about.” Another learner shared, “I read the first few lines to see if I understand,” reflecting a pre-reading skimming habit to activate background knowledge. Some also reported “flipping through the pages to find familiar words,” which suggests a comfort-check strategy, potentially used to build confidence before full engagement with the text.

Writing tasks elicited deeper planning behaviours. Pupils frequently mentioned “thinking about what to say and the words to use” before writing, which indicates early stages of idea generation and lexical planning. Notably, some learners described translanguaging practices as part of their cognitive planning, such as “imagining in Malay first, then writing in English,” showing how they leverage L1 to scaffold L2 output (Jou, 2019). Social planning also surfaced, with several pupils stating they would “ask teacher or friends for help with spelling” before starting. This demonstrates proactive help-seeking, a proactive form of strategic preparation.

In speaking, planning often involved rehearsal or internal dialogue. One pupil said, “I write it down first and practise many times,” while another shared, “I try to say it in my head before I speak out loud.” These behaviours reflect intentional mental rehearsal and practice strategies commonly associated with performance planning (Borkowski, Carr, & Pressley, 1987). Learners also reported practising with family members, which demonstrates social planning extended beyond classroom contexts.

For listening tasks, planning was less elaborated but still evident in subtle forms. Several learners mentioned preparing themselves mentally, including “telling myself to listen carefully” or “getting book and pencil ready.” Though basic, these habits indicate a developing sense of procedural and attentional readiness.

Monitoring Strategies

The techniques for monitoring differed in their complexity and autonomy among learners, as numerous individuals depended on outside signals and assistance. Pupils illustrated behaviours during activities that indicate efforts to monitor understanding, evaluate correctness, or modify their answers, although the degree of metacognitive regulation varied from passive watching to engaged inquiry.

In reading, visual tools like images were frequently employed to validate comprehension. For example, a student remarked, “I look at the pictures to help me understand the story.” Others mentioned re-reading difficult parts or skimming for context clues, though these behaviours were reported less frequently. Social strategies such as seeking clarification from the teacher or friends were also significant: “I ask the teacher when I don’t understand,” suggesting a dependence on interpersonal scaffolding rather than self-monitoring (Ahmadi Safa & Motaghi, 2024).

In writing, most learners reported checking their work while composing. One pupil shared, “I look at examples in the English book to see if I’m doing it right,” which illustrates a model-referencing strategy. A few pupils monitored their writing by “reading aloud to check if it sounds right,” showing emerging attention to cohesion and flow. Nonetheless, the majority of the monitoring was superficial, emphasizing punctuation and spelling instead of the quality of content or structure.

For speaking, monitoring often involves interpreting the listener’s reactions. Many pupils said they “watch people’s faces to see if they understand,” using non-verbal cues to judge communication effectiveness. Some learners asked follow-up questions like “Can you say it again?” when uncertain, showing proactive clarification techniques. These actions demonstrate the active and socially aware aspect of oral monitoring (Sabnani & Goh, 2022).

In listening, monitoring similarly relied on visual and social cues. Pupils described observing others’ reactions or comparing answers to verify understanding: “I look at my friend to see if they’re confused,” and “I check if they answer correctly.” A smaller number of pupils also mentioned asking peers whether they understood, showing signs of metacognitive awareness about group comprehension and shared meaning-making.

Overall, while monitoring behaviours were present, many were externally driven rather than internally regulated. This supports prior findings that younger learners often depend on adult or peer feedback to guide their monitoring processes (Liaqat, Munteanu, & Demmans Epp, 2021).

Evaluating Strategies

Assessment is an essential metacognitive activity that allows learners to contemplate their performance, recognise strengths and weaknesses, and enhance future task outcomes. The replies from the interview show that primary school pupils participated in different types of assessments involving all four language skills, from surface-level checks to deeper self-reflection.

In writing tasks, many pupils reported rereading their work to ensure accuracy. For instance, one participant stated, “After writing an essay, I read it again to check if it makes sense and if there are any mistakes.” This behaviour reflects the metacognitive act of self-evaluation, aligning with the notion that learners assess the quality and coherence of their output to guide revision and improvement (Chen, Zhang, & Parr, 2022). However, most evaluation in writing focused on language mechanics. Pupils frequently mentioned “checking for spelling mistakes,” or ensuring correct punctuation and capitalization. This emphasis on surface-level features may reflect both developmental factors and the types of feedback commonly emphasized by teachers in primary settings (Zhang & Zhang, 2024).

In speaking, pupils’ evaluations often centred on listener reactions and emotional outcomes. Several learners described reflecting on whether they were understood by others, saying things like, “When I finish speaking in class, I think about whether I said everything correctly or if I forgot something.” Some associated evaluation with positive feelings: “I feel happy when my friends understand me.” These responses suggest that speaking evaluations are intertwined with affective validation and interpersonal awareness that are key components in developing communicative confidence and metacognitive awareness in oral performance (Kamarudin, 2024).

Evaluation in reading was commonly linked to task outcomes. Many pupils reported checking their understanding by determining whether they could “answer the questions the teacher asks.” This suggests an outcome-oriented form of evaluation, focusing on task correctness rather than deeper comprehension. A smaller number of pupils described strategies such as recalling character names or retelling stories, while others used peer discussion to verify interpretations, e.g., “talking about it with a friend to see if they got the same idea.” Such practices illustrate developing skills in collaborative reflection and self-assessment(Paethrangsi, Teekasap, & Khiewpan, 2024).

For listening tasks, evaluation also combines cognitive and affective dimensions. Several pupils evaluated their success by checking whether they “answered the questions correctly” or by seeking clarification when unsure. Others expressed pride or satisfaction, such as feeling “good when they understand most of it.” These findings suggest that pupils are beginning to engage in both retrospective accuracy-checking and emotional validation after listening, reflecting the layered nature of evaluation in younger learners (Ramírez-Mera & Tur, 2023). Nevertheless, a small subset of pupils reported not engaging in any post-task reflection, which may point to developmental differences in metacognitive maturity or a lack of instructional emphasis on self-evaluation practices (Singh & Diefes-Dux, 2023).

General Self-Regulation Habits

Aside from specific language tasks, pupils also exhibited wider self-regulation behaviours that indicate goal setting, preparation, seeking help, and motivational involvement. These habits demonstrate their developing ability to autonomously and assertively handle their own learning processes.

Several pupils described preparing their learning environment in advance, such as “I always make sure my dictionary is ready before starting my homework.” This reflects environmental structuring and strategic readiness, which are foundational elements of self-regulated learning (Lin & Dai, 2022). Others described reviewing their work before submission, e.g., “I check my homework carefully before submitting it because I want to make sure it’s correct,” indicating a sense of responsibility and performance monitoring.

Goal setting was another frequently mentioned behaviour. Pupils shared intentions like “I want to learn five new words every week,” and “I hope to write a short paragraph without mistakes.” These responses show emerging autonomy and intrinsic motivation, key characteristics of the forethought phase in SRL models such as Zimmerman’s cyclical model or Oxford’s Strategic Self-Regulation framework (Marantika, 2021).

Help-seeking behaviours were also commonly reported, with pupils saying they would “ask the teacher what the correct answer is” or “ask their friend to explain it.” These actions reflect strategic resource use, a recognised self-regulation strategy in language learning contexts (Chu, Palmer, & Persky, 2018). Pupils further acknowledged the role of external support systems, citing assistance from parents, siblings, and tuition teachers. This emphasizes the social aspect of self-regulated learning, in which learners utilise their surroundings and connections to manage academic difficulties (Yapar, 2023). Together, these habits suggest that while pupils may still be developing consistent metacognitive control, many are already engaging in behaviours that lay the foundation for long-term independent and reflective learning. Overall, the findings indicated that while planning strategies were most consistently used, monitoring was moderately applied, and evaluation was least developed. These patterns varied across the four language skills and reflected the learners’ metacognitive maturity.

Discussion

This study investigated how primary school pupils apply metacognitive strategies: planning, monitoring, and evaluating to enhance their English language proficiency. The findings revealed noticeable variations in how learners approached each strategy across the four core language skills. This section discusses key themes that emerged from the data, supported by previous literature, and reflects on the pedagogical implications for classroom practice.

Planning emerged as the most consistently applied metacognitive strategy among pupils. Many demonstrated the ability to set personal goals, activate prior knowledge, and prepare necessary resources before engaging in tasks. For example, learners described previewing texts, writing down key vocabulary, or mentally rehearsing what they wanted to say. These behaviours reflect the forethought phase in Zimmerman’s (2002) self-regulated learning model, where learners set objectives and consider strategies prior to task execution. The prevalence of planning may be due to its concrete nature, making it more developmentally accessible for younger learners (Veenman, Wilhelm, & Beishuizen, 2004; Oxford, 1990). However, some pupils still struggled with realistic goal setting and sequencing, indicating a need for structured modelling and teacher support.

Monitoring strategies were used with moderate consistency. While a few pupils actively tracked their comprehension or sought clarification during tasks, many relied heavily on external sources such as teachers, peers, or non-verbal cues to assess their understanding. Statements like “I wait for my teacher to tell me” and “I look at their face to see if they understand” suggest a limited internalisation of self-monitoring processes. This aligns with studies showing that younger learners often require scaffolding to develop self-directed decision-making and problem-solving skills (Apata, 2024; Fath & Sarraf, 2023). Those who demonstrated stronger monitoring were typically more confident and willing to engage in strategic questioning or observation. This reinforces the importance of building learners’ confidence alongside metacognitive instruction.

Evaluation was the least frequently applied strategy. Most pupils struggled to reflect meaningfully on their performance after completing a task. Evaluation, by nature, is abstract and requires learners to self-assess based on internal benchmarks, something many younger pupils have yet to develop (Rivas et al., 2022). Given their age, many learners may still be developing the cognitive skills needed for abstract reflection, which reinforces the importance of explicit modelling and guided practice in building metacognitive habits.

While a few pupils mentioned reviewing their writing or checking their answers, these reflections often focused on surface-level correctness (e.g., spelling, punctuation) rather than deeper content quality or learning growth. This trend supports Oxford’s (2017) assertion that evaluation requires explicit modelling and feedback mechanisms for young learners to adopt effectively. Some learners reported emotional responses such as pride or confusion as part of their evaluation process, indicating that affective factors also play a role in how reflection is experienced and interpreted (Merkebu, Kitsantas, Durning, & Ma, 2023).

The differences observed among pupils reflect the non-linear and individual nature of metacognitive strategy development (Öztürk & Çakıroğlu, 2021; Zimmerman & Moylan, 2009). While some learners showed strong use of planning and emerging monitoring behaviours, others exhibited minimal self-regulation and depended heavily on adult intervention. Factors such as language proficiency, motivation, self-efficacy, and prior exposure to strategy training likely contributed to these variations (Zimmerman & Moylan, 2009).

This diversity highlights the need for differentiated instructional approaches that scaffold learners according to their readiness and metacognitive maturity. Essentially, beyond the classroom, parents can support metacognitive development by encouraging consistent learning routines at home, asking reflective questions (e.g., “What did you learn today?”), and providing supportive feedback. Pupils in return, benefit from the opportunity of repeated practice, self-monitoring tools, and peer discussions that can promote their confidence and early learner autonomy.

The findings underline the importance of embedding metacognitive strategy instruction within everyday English lessons. Teachers should provide guided planning activities, such as goal-setting worksheets or task previews, to build pupils’ strategic thinking before tasks. During activities, learners can be supported with visual cues, self-check prompts, or peer questioning frameworks to enhance monitoring. For evaluation, reflective journals, rubrics, and structured feedback sessions can foster deeper self-assessment and long-term growth in learner autonomy.

Given the developmental challenges involved, these strategies should be introduced gradually and supported through consistent teacher modelling and reinforcement. Teacher training programmes should also emphasize metacognitive pedagogy, especially for lower primary contexts, to ensure educators are equipped to nurture these essential skills across proficiency levels. Together, these findings highlight the need for teachers, parents, and schools to adopt a collaborative and developmental approach in nurturing metacognitive habits from a young age.

CONCLUSION

This study investigated the use of metacognitive strategies: planning, monitoring, and evaluating among primary school learners in the context of English language learning. The results showed that although numerous pupils displayed the capacity to participate in strategic learning behaviours, their application of metacognitive strategies differed significantly depending on language skills and cognitive development levels.

Planning was found to be the most consistently applied strategy. Learners often set clear goals, previewed tasks, and prepared materials in advance. These behaviours reflect the forethought phase in self-regulated learning, where learners actively prepare for academic success (Brenner, 2022). Monitoring was also moderately evident, with pupils relying heavily on teachers or peers to assess their understanding. This reliance highlights the importance of external scaffolding to support the development of self-directed monitoring (Kharroubi & ElMediouni, 2024). Evaluation, meanwhile, appeared to be the least developed strategy, with most learners showing limited reflection on their performance. Where present, evaluation was often focused on surface-level corrections rather than deep self-assessment or strategy adaptation.

These findings support existing research that younger learners benefit significantly from explicit modelling and guided reflection to strengthen their metacognitive awareness (Sabnani & Goh, 2022; Cravo, 2018). When teachers incorporate strategy-based instruction into everyday English lessons such as using checklists, rubrics, reflection prompts, and think-alouds, pupils are more likely to internalise these strategies and apply them across skills.

To foster metacognitive development in primary learners, teachers should:

Incorporate structured planning tools such as goal-setting sheets or graphic organisers;

Embed monitoring prompts during tasks (e.g., “Have I understood this?” or “Does this make sense?”);

Facilitate evaluation activities post-task, including self-check rubrics, peer discussion, or guided reflection journals;

Model metacognitive talk aloud (e.g., “Let me reread this part to make sure I understand”);

Create low-pressure opportunities for learners to practise these strategies regularly.

Teacher training programmes ought to incorporate modules on metacognitive teaching, particularly for the early primary years when basic habits start to develop. Enhancing teacher skills to demonstrate and support these strategies is crucial in fostering enduring learner independence.

This research was constrained by its limited sample size and concentration on just two primary schools. Consequently, the results might not completely capture the variety of pupils from various school types, language origins, or geographical settings. Future research should examine larger and more diverse samples, including comparisons between urban and rural educational settings, national and local curricula, or pupils with varying degrees of English proficiency.

Furthermore, it is suggested that longitudinal studies be conducted to monitor the progression of metacognitive strategy utilisation through important educational stages. This would provide a better understanding of how these strategies develop over time, and guide the best timing and approach for metacognitive teaching. Studies can also examine how elements like teacher beliefs, curriculum design, and the incorporation of technology affect the effectiveness of metacognitive strategy application. Moreover, utilising a mixed-methods strategy that includes classroom observations, student reflections, and standardized language proficiency tests could offer a deeper insight into the direct connection between metacognitive strategies and language results.

This study contributes to the understanding of how young ESL learners engage in metacognitive strategy use and highlights the critical role of guided support in fostering self-regulated learning. Future research could explore longitudinal effects of strategy instruction or investigate parental roles in promoting metacognitive development at home. The findings offer valuable implications not only for teachers, but also for parents and learners themselves, who benefit from environments that nurture reflective, autonomous language learning.

In conclusion, this study reinforces the potential of primary school learners to engage in meaningful metacognitive behaviour when given the right support. By integrating strategy-based learning into classroom routines, educators can cultivate confident, self-regulated learners equipped not only to succeed in English but to thrive across all areas of academic life.

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