Missionary Societies and the Development of Western Education in Meru County, Kenya, 1920–1963

Missionary Societies and the Development of Western Education in Meru County, Kenya, 1920–1963

Agnes Njoki Mugo, Lewis Muli Ngesu, Daniel Gakunga

University of Nairobi

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.909000717

Received: 20 September 2025; Accepted: 26 September 2025; Published: 28 October 2025

ABSTRACT

The introduction of Western education in Kenya was closely tied to missionary activities, with schools serving as critical instruments for both evangelization and social transformation. This study examines the contributions of missionary societies to the development of formal education in Meru County between 1920 and 1963, a period marked by colonial expansion and intensified religious activities. Using historical research methods, the study draws on archival records, government documents, mission reports, interviews, and secondary literature to reconstruct the educational role of the Methodist, Catholic (Consolata Fathers), and Scottish missions. Findings reveal that missionaries pioneered school establishment in Meru, beginning with the United Methodist Mission at Kaaga in 1912, followed by the Consolata Fathers in Imenti, Igoji, Tigania, and Igembe, and the Church of Scotland Mission in Chuka and Chogoria by 1915. Their contributions extended beyond literacy to include religious instruction, industrial training, and community mobilization, often facilitated by African catechists and chiefs. While colonial administration later regulated education, missionaries remained the key drivers of access and curriculum design. The study concludes that missionary societies laid the foundation for Meru’s formal education system, shaping the region’s religious, cultural, and intellectual landscape in ways that endured into the postcolonial era. However, the study also established that Africans played an equally pivotal role in the establishment of formal education in Meru, as they worked alongside the missionaries.

Keywords: Missionary societies in Kenya, Western education in Meru County, Methodist Missionary Society, Roman Catholic Consolata Fathers, Church of Scotland Mission, colonial Kenya

INTRODUCTION

The emergence of Western education in Africa is closely intertwined with the activities of missionary societies during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Across the continent, missions were not only religious institutions but also centres of learning, shaping the educational and cultural landscapes of African communities. In Kenya, and more specifically in Meru County, missionary organizations were central to the establishment of schools, the introduction of literacy, and the dissemination of Christian values through formal education. While African contributions to this process were significant, the role of missionary societies warrants particular attention, as their presence and initiatives marked a turning point in the history of education in the region.

Missionary societies approached Africa with the belief that the continent was uncivilized, pagan, and in need of transformation through Christianity and Western knowledge. This perspective, however, often ignored the existence of indigenous educational systems, which were coherent, functional, and adapted to local needs (Sifuna, 1990; Sifuna & Otiende, 1994). Despite this oversight, missionaries nonetheless spearheaded the establishment of formal schools, regarding education as a strategic tool for evangelization. Anderson (1970) observe that missionaries sought to create literate converts who could read scripture and internalize Christian teachings. Consequently, the spread of Western education became inseparable from missionary expansion, as schools emerged alongside churches, clinics, and mission stations across Africa.

At a continental level, the Church Missionary Society (CMS) pioneered many of these initiatives, particularly in West Africa, where Sierra Leone became a hub for evangelizing and rehabilitating formerly enslaved people. Ajayi (1965) note that such interventions quickly spread, leading to the proliferation of mission schools across sub-Saharan Africa. The Kenyan experience reflected these broader dynamics, with early missionary activities concentrated along the coast. The arrival of Dr. Ludwig Krapf in 1844 marked the beginning of sustained missionary educational efforts in Kenya. Although his initial attempts to evangelize the Oromo failed due to cultural barriers, collaboration with John Rebman of CMS in 1846 enabled progress in both evangelism and education. Together, they established mission schools, planted churches, and translated the Bible into Kiswahili (Bogonko, 1992). Their model combined religious instruction with practical and industrial training, preparing students to be self-reliant as well as spiritually transformed (Anderson, 1970; Sheffield, 1973; Lugumba & Ssekamwa, 1973).

The introduction of Western education in Meru County occurred slightly later, beginning in the early 20th century. The first missionary society to establish itself in the region was the United Methodist Mission, which arrived in 1910 and opened a school at Kaaga in 1912. This effort, supported by African leaders such as Joseph Jara and David M’Ituma, marked a turning point in the county’s educational development (Nthamburi, 1982). The collaboration between missionaries and local communities facilitated not only the construction of schools but also the embedding of Western education into the social fabric of Meru society.

Following the Methodists, the Consolata Fathers, a Catholic missionary group from Turin, Italy, established mission stations in Imenti, Igoji, Igembe, Tigania, Mikinduri, and Mujwa between 1911 and 1913 (Gituma, 2013). At these centres, the missionaries introduced instruction in writing, reading, and arithmetic. African catechists played a crucial role in supporting these efforts, often serving as cultural intermediaries and ensuring the sustainability of mission education. Gituma (2013) highlights how chiefs and catechists worked alongside missionaries to promote the 3Rs—reading, writing, and arithmetic—thus aligning educational objectives with broader community leadership.

The Church of Scotland Mission was the third major group to introduce Western education in Meru. Expanding from its earlier base in Kikuyu, the mission opened a mission station in Chuka. By 1915, Chogoria school had opened its doors to students, with the assistance of Africans who had previously studied at Tumutumu (Micheni, 1988). The Scottish approach, similar to that of the Methodists and Catholics, combined religious instruction with elementary education (reading, writing, and arithmetic) and manual labour. Missionaries held a strong conviction that literacy facilitated conversion and retention within the Christian faith.

These developments in Meru were situated within a broader colonial context. While the colonial government eventually became involved in regulating and supporting education, missionaries were the first to establish schools, long before state structures were in place. The colonial administration often viewed mission schools as useful partners in extending Western civilization and order, but missionaries were primarily motivated by religious zeal and a conviction that education was essential for spreading Christianity. This duality—between colonial objectives and missionary priorities—shaped the character of early education in Meru and Kenya at large.

Despite these complexities, the contributions of missionary societies to the growth of Western education in Meru County cannot be overstated. They laid the foundation for formal schooling by building institutions, designing curricula, and mobilizing both local and external resources. Their emphasis on literacy, religious instruction, and industrial training established patterns that influenced the educational landscape well into the postcolonial era. Moreover, the presence of multiple missionary societies—Methodist, Catholic (Consolata Fathers), and Scottish—created a diverse educational environment that exposed Meru communities to different pedagogical approaches and denominational influences.

The significance of this study lies in its attempt to document and analyse these missionary contributions. While African agency in education has often been underrepresented in historical narratives, it is equally important to understand the pivotal role played by missionary societies. Their interventions were not neutral but carried social, cultural, and political implications, shaping not only educational access but also religious identity and colonial power relations. As such, this study situates the development of Western education in Meru within a wider discourse on the intersections of religion, colonialism, and African adaptation.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Missionary Societies’ Contribution to the Development of Western Education in Meru County

The spread and growth of Western education in Kenya, and more specifically in Meru County, was closely tied to missionary activity in the early twentieth century. While Africans had their own well-established indigenous education systems, missionaries introduced Western forms of learning primarily as a vehicle for evangelization and cultural transformation. This literature review traces the contribution of missionary societies to education in Kenya with emphasis on Meru County, highlighting the pivotal role of the Methodists, Consolata Fathers, and the Church of Scotland Mission (CSM).

Missionary Foundations of Western Education in Kenya

The introduction of Western education in Kenya was spearheaded by missionaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Initially, schools were established as extensions of missionary evangelism. The early curriculum emphasized Christian religious instruction alongside the “3Rs”—reading, writing, and arithmetic (Eshiwani, 1993). Education was viewed not only as a means of personal enlightenment but also as a necessary tool for effective evangelization and for training catechists (Temu, 1972).

The importance of mission schools is illustrated by landmark institutions such as Alliance High School, founded in 1926 by Protestant missions, which produced an elite African leadership that later dominated Kenya’s political and administrative landscape (Kipkorir, 1969; Smith, 1973). Catholic missions, including the Mill Hill and Consolata Fathers, also established schools that significantly shaped educational development in central and western Kenya (Osogo, 1970; Wasike, 1999). These institutions became platforms for both evangelism and social mobility, laying the foundation for broader educational expansion across the country.

Methodist Missionaries in Meru

The Methodist Missionary Society was the first to establish a strong educational presence in Meru. Methodist missionaries arrived in 1910 and, by 1912, had established their first school at Kaaga with the support of local Africans such as Joseph Jara and David M’Ituma, who cleared bushes and provided building materials (Nthamburi, 1982). Education quickly became central to their evangelical mission. By prioritizing literacy and religious training, the Methodists linked formal schooling to Christian conversion.

The Methodists also pioneered girls’ education in Meru. Kaaga Girls Boarding School, established by the Methodist mission, later grew into Kaaga Girls High School in 1961, becoming one of the earliest institutions dedicated to advancing female education in the region (Mugo, 2011). This initiative addressed a significant gap, as girls previously had to travel long distances outside Meru in search of secondary education. By expanding access, the Methodists promoted gender inclusivity in formal schooling, a transformative shift in the cultural fabric of Meru society (Mati, 2006).

Consolata Fathers and Catholic Missions

The Consolata Fathers, Catholic missionaries from Turin, Italy, arrived in Meru between 1911 and 1913. They established mission stations and schools across Imenti, Igoji, Igembe, Tigania, Mikinduri, and Mujwa (Gituma, 2013). Their approach integrated evangelism with practical education. Alongside catechism, they taught writing, reading, and arithmetic, often with the help of African catechists who acted as interpreters and local collaborators. Chiefs also played a role by offering security and support for these early schools.

The Catholic mission stations created multiple centres of education, enabling literacy to spread across a wide geographical area within Meru. The presence of Catholic schools broadened access beyond the Methodist stronghold in Kaaga, helping formal education take root in diverse communities. Their collaboration with local leaders and catechists also highlights the intertwined roles of missionaries and Africans in early educational development.

Church of Scotland Mission (CSM)

The third major missionary group to arrive in Meru was the Church of Scotland Mission, which expanded from its base in Kikuyu into Chuka and Chogoria (Micheni, 1988). The CSM established mission schools that focused primarily on the 3Rs, religious training, and manual work. Like other missions, education was both a tool for evangelism and a method of imparting knowledge and industriousness. African tutors and evangelists trained at Tumutumu were instrumental in the early teaching workforce.

One of the most influential CSM initiatives was the school at Chogoria, which operated even before the establishment of the formal mission station (Irvine, 1982). African catechists and evangelists trained at Tumutumu became the first teachers at the school, illustrating how missionary education created local agents who further expanded Western education. While many Africans later expressed dissatisfaction with the narrow scope of missionary education—eventually leading to the independent schools’ movement—the CSM laid important groundwork for educational access in Meru.

Missionary Strategies and Educational Impact

Across the different missionary societies, several common strategies emerge. First, schools were mostly attached to mission stations, ensuring that evangelization and education progressed hand in hand (Strayer, 1973). Second, missionaries used education to prepare Africans for subordinate roles in the colonial economy and church, often limiting the curriculum to basic literacy (reading, writing, and arithmetic) and vocational training (Otiende, Wamahiu, & Karugu, 1992). Third, missionaries relied heavily on local African participation, particularly catechists and evangelists, who not only taught but also mediated cultural and linguistic barriers (Gituma, 2013).

Despite these limitations, the missionary contribution to education in Meru was transformative. Schools provided avenues for literacy, leadership development, and social advancement. They also introduced new gender dynamics through the inclusion of girls’ education and created pathways for Africans to participate in both church leadership and colonial administration. By the mid-20th century, missionary-founded schools in Meru had become the foundation for broader educational growth, later supplemented by independent schools and government initiatives.

While the missionary societies’ efforts were closely tied to evangelism and often restricted by colonial priorities, they created the infrastructure and momentum that enabled formal education to flourish in Meru. Their contribution thus represents a crucial chapter in the history of education in Kenya.

METHODS

This study adopted a historical research design in order to reconstruct and critically examine the role played by missionary societies in the development of Western education in Meru County. Historical research is particularly valuable when the aim is to capture the educational past through a careful reconstruction of events and the analysis of evidence left behind (Cohen & Manion, 1994). By applying this design, the study was able to investigate how missionaries established schools, introduced curricula, and interacted with both colonial authorities and local communities in shaping education. The design was considered the most suitable because it facilitated an in-depth and impartial examination of historical data, allowing the researcher to explain how missionary efforts laid the foundation for contemporary education in Meru.

To ensure comprehensive coverage, the study relied on both primary and secondary sources of data. Primary sources provided first-hand evidence of missionary activities in Meru and included archival documents such as mission reports, government education circulars, letters of correspondence, as well as church records preserved at the Kenya National Archives and the Presbyterian Church of East Africa archives in Chogoria. These documents were especially valuable in tracing how missionary societies set up schools, trained teachers, and expanded literacy in Meru. Primary sources reflect the direct outcomes of events and therefore offer authentic accounts of past developments. The study also conducted oral interviews with individuals who had either directly participated in missionary-founded educational initiatives or whose families were beneficiaries of early mission schools. These included retired African teachers trained in missionary institutions, evangelists who worked alongside missionaries, and former students of mission-established schools. Such perspectives provided insights into how missionary education influenced aspirations and transformed local communities.

Secondary sources were equally important in supplementing the data, particularly where archival gaps existed. These included published books, journal articles, dissertations, and newspapers that documented the broader history of missionary education in Kenya and its impact in Meru. Secondary sources, while useful, required careful interpretation because they represent second-hand accounts of historical events (Kombo & Tromp, 2009; Koul, 1984). For instance, some secondary literature highlighted missionary contributions within a broader colonial narrative, potentially downplaying African participation. To balance this, the study used secondary sources primarily to cross-check facts and fill in details where primary records were incomplete. Reliance on both primary and secondary materials ensures a richer and more reliable reconstruction of historical events.

The procedures for data collection were guided by the need to obtain as much relevant missionary-related evidence as possible. Following Hockett’s (1955) assertion that historians work with traces left behind by human action, the researcher systematically visited archives and libraries to analyse missionary reports, education policy papers, and church records. The Kenya National Archives in Nairobi provided valuable government documentation on mission schools, while the Presbyterian Church of East Africa archives at Chogoria yielded first-hand mission records that described the establishment of schools, teacher training programs, and literacy campaigns spearheaded by missionaries in Meru. Additional searches were carried out in local libraries such as Igoji Teachers Library Archives and County Education offices to access records specific to Meru’s missionary education. These archival materials were supplemented by oral interviews, which served to clarify information and capture lived experiences of those who directly encountered missionary education. An interview guide was employed to ensure consistency, while further probing allowed the researcher to capture nuanced understandings of how missionary societies influenced educational aspirations in Meru (Oso & Onen, 2008).

The instruments for data collection included both document analysis and interview schedules. Document analysis enabled the extraction of relevant information from archival sources in line with the objectives of the study, while interviews made it possible to capture aspects of missionary contributions that were not formally documented. Oral testimonies revealed how missionary schools promoted literacy, instilled Christian values, and prepared learners for formal employment, thereby complementing the archival record. Audio recordings were used to ensure accuracy and to preserve the narratives for future reference. These instruments proved effective because missionary education was not only recorded in official documents but also remembered vividly through the personal experiences of those who studied in or taught at mission schools.

A rigorous process of data evaluation was undertaken before accepting information as valid historical evidence. Following (Borg and Gall, 1983), the study subjected the data to both external and internal criticism. External criticism focused on verifying the authenticity of missionary documents, such as confirming that reports attributed to particular societies like the Presbyterian or Catholic missions were genuine and not forgeries or distortions. Internal criticism, on the other hand, involved assessing the accuracy and reliability of the content. This entailed examining whether the authors had direct knowledge of the events they reported and whether their accounts were corroborated by other independent sources (Koul, 1984). For example, claims made in mission reports about the number of schools established were compared with government circulars and oral testimonies to establish consistency. By applying these tests, the study ensured that the evidence on missionary contributions to education in Meru was both authentic and credible.

Once validated, the data was analysed qualitatively. The analysis involved organizing and coding evidence into categories that reflected different aspects of missionary contributions, such as school establishment, teacher training, curriculum development, and community engagement. Coding enabled the separation of themes and facilitated the identification of recurring patterns, such as the emphasis on literacy for evangelization or the missionaries’ role in producing the first African teachers in Meru (Kombo & Tromp, 2009). Emerging themes were then interpreted in light of the study objectives, allowing the researcher to establish trends and draw conclusions about the role of missionary societies in the development of Western education in Meru. The findings were presented descriptively, ensuring that the narrative captured both the documented and lived experiences of missionary influence on education.

Throughout the research process, ethical considerations were carefully observed. A research permit was obtained from the National Commission for Science, Technology, and Innovation, and further clearance was sought from the County Education Office to conduct fieldwork in Meru. Informants were contacted in advance, informed about the purpose of the research, and asked for consent before participating. Their confidentiality was respected, and the information collected was used solely for academic purposes (Koul, 1984). This was particularly important given that interviews touched on personal and sometimes sensitive recollections of missionary encounters.

In sum, the methodology combined archival research, document analysis, and oral interviews within a historical research framework to reconstruct the missionary role in educational development in Meru County. By triangulating data from multiple sources, applying rigorous criticism, and analysing evidence thematically, the study was able to document how missionary societies shaped the early educational landscape of Meru. The chosen methodology not only ensured reliability and validity but also enabled a nuanced understanding of how missionary education laid the foundation for Western schooling in the region.

DISCUSSION

The development of Western education in Meru County cannot be separated from the missionary work of the early twentieth century. Missionary societies, particularly the Methodists, the Roman Catholic (Consolata Fathers), and the Church of Scotland Mission, were the primary drivers of formal schooling in the region. Their efforts laid the foundations for literacy, religious instruction, and formal training that shaped Meru’s educational trajectory. Although the colonial administration provided the overarching political framework and later influenced the scope and orientation of schooling, it was missionary societies that took the lead in establishing, expanding, and sustaining Western education in Meru.

The Methodist Missionary Society was the earliest to introduce Western education in Meru, beginning at Kaaga in 1912. Their approach combined evangelization with education, using schools as vehicles for spreading the Christian faith and instilling moral values. Missionaries worked closely with African collaborators like Joseph Jara and David M’Ituma to establish classrooms and mobilize local communities (Nthamburi, 1982). This participatory approach reflected both the resource constraints of missionaries and their reliance on indigenous contribution to achieve educational goals. Education was initially functional, focusing on literacy to enable Bible reading, but it quickly became institutionalized, with Kaaga evolving into a central hub for missionary education in Meru (Mati, 2006). The Methodists also pioneered girls’ education by establishing Kaaga Girls Boarding School, which later became a high school in 1961, breaking gender barriers that had long constrained formal learning opportunities for women (Mugo, 2011).

The Roman Catholic Consolata Fathers arrived around the same period, establishing mission stations in Imenti, Igoji, Tigania, Igembe, Mikinduri, and Mujwa between 1911 and 1913 (Gituma, 2013). Their methodology emphasized collaboration with local chiefs, who provided security, as well as catechists, who acted as interpreters and teachers. The Consolata Fathers embedded education into broader social and religious programs, combining literacy with moral and vocational training. Catholic schools focused heavily on instilling religious values while also teaching practical agricultural skills in line with colonial educational policy. This dual orientation reflected the Church’s commitment to both evangelization and the production of disciplined, industrious Africans who could fit within the colonial economy (Irvine, 1982). By spreading their schools widely across Meru, the Consolata Fathers ensured that Western education was not confined to a single mission centre but instead became accessible to multiple communities.

The Church of Scotland Mission also played a significant role, particularly through its expansion into Chuka and Chogoria. Missionaries established schools that combined the teaching of literacy (reading, writing, and arithmetic) and Christian doctrine with vocational training and manual labour (Micheni, 1988). The Chogoria mission, for example, became a centre not only of religious work but also of teacher training, producing African evangelists and educators who extended Western education beyond the immediate mission stations (Irvine, 1982). Like the Methodists and Catholics, the Scots relied heavily on African collaborators, demonstrating that while missionaries provided institutional leadership, Africans were indispensable to the diffusion of education. Evangelists trained in CSM institutions carried both religious and educational responsibilities, bridging the cultural gap and ensuring that schooling became embedded in Meru’s social fabric.

Across the societies, the curriculum was shaped by missionary priorities and colonial requirements. The core of early missionary education was the “3Rs”—reading, writing, and arithmetic—supplemented by Christian instruction (Eshiwani, 1993). Manual labour was integrated into the timetable to cultivate industriousness and self-reliance (Micheni, 1988). The colonial administration supported this orientation, as it aligned with the government’s vision of producing semi-skilled Africans who could serve as clerks, artisans, and agricultural workers. This relationship reveals the dual influences on missionary education: while missionaries pursued evangelization, they simultaneously conformed to colonial policies that sought to regulate African advancement. The result was an education that provided literacy and religious grounding but often curtailed Africans’ access to higher professional opportunities.

One notable methodological feature of missionary societies was their reliance on African catechists, teachers, and evangelists. Given the vastness of Meru and the limited number of European missionaries, Africans became central to the implementation of missionary education. They taught reading, writing, and arithmetic, led Bible studies, and contextualized Western curricula within local realities (Gituma, 2013). This reliance was not merely pragmatic but also strategic, as it ensured that the message of Christianity and the practice of formal schooling penetrated rural areas beyond the reach of missionary stations. African teachers trained in mission schools became some of the earliest formal educators in Meru, creating a multiplier effect that enabled the expansion of education.

The colonial administration, though not the initiator of education in Meru, provided an important backdrop. Chiefs were often enlisted to support missionary efforts by mobilizing resources and encouraging attendance at schools (Sifuna & Otiende, 1994). The administration also regulated the content of education, encouraging practical and vocational training in line with its utilitarian goals.

The long-term effects of missionary contributions were profound. First, missionary societies institutionalized schooling, shifting education from indigenous systems to formalized Western models. Second, they introduced gender inclusivity by promoting girls’ education, which challenged prevailing social norms and expanded opportunities for women. Third, by training African teachers and evangelists, missionaries ensured the sustainability and expansion of education, even in areas where European presence was minimal. Finally, their collaboration with chiefs and alignment with colonial structures created durable educational frameworks that outlasted the missionaries themselves.

At the same time, missionary education had inherent limitations. Its narrow curriculum prioritized basic literacy (reading, writing, and arithmetic), religious instruction, and manual labour, restricting access to broader academic and professional advancement. Education also functioned as a form of cultural control, shaping African identities to align with missionary and colonial values. This led to discontent among Africans, who eventually initiated independent schools to address perceived gaps and assert greater autonomy in their educational development (Micheni, 1988). Thus, while missionaries were pivotal in laying the foundation for Western education, their efforts also generated tensions that shaped subsequent African responses.

In summary, like in many parts of Kenya and Africa in general, missionary societies were central to the introduction and growth of Western education in Meru County, which had both intended and unintended consequences, that is:

Intended Consequences

• Adoption of western civilization and religion
• Heightened awareness of moral and ethical values
• Better healthcare and hygiene practices
• Economically and socially empowered community members
• Indigenous agents of Western education and religion (catechists, evangelists, and teachers)

Unintended Consequences

• Cultural conflict arose as Africans felt indoctrinating learners into adopting Western way of life undermined their indigenous beliefs
• Social stratification evolved as a new class of educated elites emerged
• Emergence of independent schools due to dissatisfaction with missionary education, which was considered narrow as it emphasized vocational training for Africans over academic education

CONCLUSION

The study has demonstrated that the development of Western education in Meru County between 1920 and 1963 was fundamentally shaped by missionary societies. The United Methodist Mission, the Roman Catholic (Consolata Fathers), and the Church of Scotland Mission spearheaded the establishment of schools that introduced the 3Rs (reading, writing, and arithmetic), religious instruction, and vocational training to the local population. These missions were not only motivated by evangelization but also by the conviction that education was an effective means of social transformation and cultural realignment. The schools they founded at Kaaga, Mujwa, Igoji, Chuka, and Chogoria became the foundation of Meru’s formal education system and produced generations of learners who later contributed to the region’s social and political life (Gituma, 2013; Micheni, 1988).

While missionary societies often operated within the framework of colonial policies, they were more consistent than the government in advancing educational access. Their work was supported by African catechists, chiefs, and community members, whose participation in building schools and sustaining learning reinforced the missionary effort. This collaboration highlights that education in Meru was not a one-sided imposition but a negotiated process shaped by missionary zeal, colonial structures, and African aspirations.

The evidence further suggests that missionary education, though initially narrow in scope—limited to literacy, religious doctrine, and manual labour—gradually expanded and laid the groundwork for a broader system of schooling. Even with its limitations, including cultural disruption and selective access, missionary education in Meru catalysed significant change. It bridged local communities with global Christian networks, provided skills essential for modern employment, and facilitated political consciousness in the run-up to independence.

In conclusion, missionary societies were instrumental in the historical trajectory of education in Meru County. Their legacy remains visible in the enduring institutions they founded and in the cultural and intellectual transformation they set in motion, making them central to the region’s educational history.

REFERENCES

1. Ajayi, J.F. (1965). Christian mission in Nigeria 1841-1891: The making of new elite. Burnt Mill: Longman.
2. Anderson, J. (1970). The struggle for the school. Nairobi: Longman (K) Ltd.
3. Bogonko, S.N. (1992). A History of modern education in Kenya (1895-1991). Evans Brothers (Nairobi, Kenya)
4. Borg, W. R &Gall, M.D. (1983). Education research: An introduction. (4th edition). New York: Longman.
5. Cohen, L.E. & Manion, L. (1994). Research in Education Psychology. Press ISB.
6. Eshiwani, G. (1993). Education in Kenya since independence. Nairobi: East African Education Publishers.
7. Gituma, F. (2013). The History of Catholic Mission in Tigania, Meru: Uzima publishers, Nairobi.
8. Hockett, H.C. (1955). The critical method in historical research and writing. The Macmillan Company. New York
9. Irvine, I. (1982). The Church of Scotland Missionary in Chogoria1922-1972.
10. Kipkorir, B.E. (1969). The Alliance high school and the origins of the Kenya Elite 1926 –
    Unpublished PhD. Thesis University of Cambridge.
11. Kombo, D. K & Tromp, A. (2009). Proposal and thesis writing: An introduction. Kenya, Don Bosco Printing Press.
12. Koul, L. (1984). Methodology of Educational Research. New Delhi: Vani educational books.
13. Lugumba, S. M. E & Ssekamwa, J. C. (1973). A History of Education in East Africa. Fountain Publishers Kampala, Uganda.
14. Mati, M.J. (2006). The contribution of the Methodist Church to education in Meru central district 1912-2001.Unpublished M.Ed. Thesis, Kenyatta University
15. Micheni, L.S. (1988). The contribution of Christian missionaries to education in Meru 1908-1963.Unpublished M.Ed. Thesis Kenyatta University.
16. Mugo, A.N. (2011). The role of Methodist missionaries in the establishment of Western education in Meru: a case of Kaaga Girls high school, 1961-2010. Unpublished Med Thesis University of Nairobi
17. Nthamburi, Z. (1982). A history of the Methodist Church in Kenya. Uzima Press.
18. Osogo, J.N. (1970). The history of Kabaa-Mangu high school and the contribution of Holy Ghost Fathers upon education in Kenya.
19. Oso, W.Y &Onen, D. (2008). A general guide to writing research proposal and report writing (2edition) Kampala: Makerere University Printer.
20. Otiende, J.E. Wamahiu, S.P. and Karuga, A.M. (1992). Education and development in Kenya: Historical perspective. Nairobi: Oxford University Press.
21. Sheffield, J.R. (1973). Education in Kenya: A historical study. New York: Teachers college press.
22. Sifuna, D. N (1990). Development of education in Africa: The Kenyan experience. Nairobi initiatives.
23. Sifuna, D.N. and Otiende, J.E. (1994). An introductory History of Education. (Revised) Nairobi:
    University of Nairobi Press.
24. Smith, J.S. (1973). The history of Alliance High School. Nairobi: Heinemann.
25. Strayer, R.W. (1978). The making of mission communities in East Africa: Anglicans and Africans in colonial Kenya, 1875-1935. Nairobi: Heinemann.
26. Temu, A.J. (1972). British protestant missions. London: Longman.
27. Wasike, N.M. (1999). The role of the friends Africa mission in the development of secondary education in Western Kenya: The case of friends school Kamusinga, 1950-1985.Unpublished M.Ed. Thesis, Kenyatta University.