Navigating Environmental Degradation Challenges of Entrepreneurs in the Niger Delta, Nigeria: Towards Strategic Entrepreneurship Model

Navigating Environmental Degradation Challenges of Entrepreneurs in the Niger Delta, Nigeria: Towards Strategic Entrepreneurship Model

Imoh Imoh-Ita, PhD

Department of Public Administration, Faculty of Management Sciences Obio Akpa Campus Akwa Ibom State University

 DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.903SEDU0321

Received: 26 March 2025; Accepted: 31 March 2025; Published: 12 July 2025

ABSTRACT

Environmental degradation induced problems emanating from crude oil extraction of Transnational Oil Companies (TNOCs) such as gas flaring, acid rains, water pollution, oil spill, coastal flooding etc, pose a significant challenge to small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the Niger Delta, yet an understudied theme in entrepreneurial studies in the Global South. The objective of this study is to navigate these challenges posed by environmental degradation and their impacts on entrepreneurs in the Niger Delta. To fill this research gap, the study integrates strategic entrepreneurship norms building on the theory of planned behavior and innovation activities from the resource-based view. Data were collected from a survey of 399 SMEs registered with the Small and Medium Enterprises Development Agency of Nigeria (SMEDAN) and analyzed data using SmartPLS. Our findings showed that environmental degradation has significant adverse effects on SMEs. Findings further revealed that strategic entrepreneurship options have positive impacts on entrepreneurship, with the latter significantly impacting entrepreneurial performance. Our findings offer new insights into strategic entrepreneurial management and performance. In the alternative, to strengthen and build entrepreneurs against environmental degradation, the study proposes strategic entrepreneurship model, institutionalized through innovative approaches and sustainable norms, and in particular to promote SMEs’ efficiency.

Keywords: Innovative Entrepreneur, Strategic Entrepreneurial vulnerability, SMEs, Sustainable Entrepreneurship, Nigeria

INTRODUCTION

Entrepreneurship has been one of the major drivers of economic growth in the developing countries of the Global South contributing more than 57% of the overall GDP growth rate (AfDB,2024). The Niger Delta are predominantly fishers and farmers engaged in individual and collective entrepreneurial activities. There are also local firms engaged in various enterprises such as craftsmen and pottery makers as well as non- farm entrereneurs.With the recent environmental degradation problems in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria including gas flaring, acid rains, water pollution, oil spill, coastal flooding etc, alongside the broader rise of mangrove deforestation across the region linked to crude oil extraction of Transnational Oil Companies (TNOCs) it appears that some of the core foundations of entrepreneurship are undermined. Such trends have led to recent interest on innovative entrepreneurship and recent interest focusing on sustainable entrepreneurship(Haleem et al.2023; Sreenivasan and Suresh,2023), some of these studies, which have stimulated recent interest in the sub field , however, have tended to ignore the longer-term effects of environmental degradation challenges of entrepreneurs in the Niger Delta —a research gap that extends to much of the analytic exploration of the entrepreneurship in public and private sector development as well as in public administration and management, which emphasize the rise of private sector and entrepreneurs without emphases on environmental constraints. This paper seeks to fill this research gap by highlighting and exploring the importance of mitigating environmental hazards and degradation to strengthen sustainable entrepreneurship.

In particular, it emphasizes the importance of innovative entrepreneurship in promoting private sector growth and development in the developing countries This linkage between entrepreneurship and private sector development not only uncover neglected aspects of entrepreneurial development in the developing counties also demonstrates development potentials of entrepreneurs by identifying the economic development potentials of innovative entrepreneurship, a research agenda that most public administration and development approaches have ignored. Only few studies have made such systemic exploration (Ogbanga et al.2018). Thus, the notion of environmental degradation as constraint to entrepreneurship and how to mitigate same have been in the margins in private sector administration studies in Nigeria.

In the alternative, this paper builds on a number of works that emphasize strategic entrepreneurship (Djordjevic, 2013; Schröder, Tiberius, Bouncken, and Kraus, 2021). Much of the most recent studies emphasize the importance of entrepreneurship as a key driver of private sector development (AfDB,2024 ), It reflects on strategic entrepreneurship norms and builds on the theory of planned behavior and innovation activities through resource-based perspective.

Nigeria is Africa’s larges economy and has a diverse entrepreneurship (Ekpo & Udo,2023). Despite the economic potentials of entrepreneurs in the overall development of the private sector and over all GDP growth rate, entrepreneurs in the Niger Delta appears to have been experiencing some of the most complex environmental degradation challenges. Entrepreneurs in the Niger Delta, an oil rich costal region in South-South Nigeria are confronted with divergent environmental degradation challenges which increasingly undermine their various enterprises. In particular, divergent economic, social and political factors limit entrepreneurial development in the Niger Delta.

Essentially, agriculture and small businesses which were the main drivers of Nigeria’s economy have been neglected following the discovery of crude oil in commercial quantity in a Niger Delta community in 1956 as a result, the region’s oil-dependent economy increasingly placed entrepreneurship in the margins of research and policy.

Beyond financial constraints, the volatile nature of the environment has in various ways constrained entrepreneurship from the start-up phase to entries promotion and development.

Strengthening the entrepreneurs and developing their enterprises has been be a problem in most developing countries (Kuratko, & Hodgetts, 2004;Hoang, & Yi, A. 2015).

Most of the entrepreneurs do not have requisite business skills and expertise in entrepreneurship including branding or marketing their products and service. This paper focuses on the ignored problem of environmental degradation and how it constricts entrepreneurship in the Niger Delta and the various dimensions of degradation which pose challenges to small business enterprises. The Niger delta entrepreneurs are micro entrepreneurs that engage in petty trading, fishers, farmers, craft making, pottery etc. With entrepreneurs receiving only 1.2% of venture capital since 1999 to 2024,Aligba and Fuch (2017)made a case for entrepreneurial motivation to strengthen youth empowerment in the Niger Delta. Some studies have also examined some of the constraints to entrepreneurship in the Niger Delta (Anietie, & Akpan, 2012; Ogbanga et al. 2018).

This study demonstrates that while micro entrepreneurs experience financial constraints in starting and running their businesses, they are equally confronted with climate variability challenges linked to capitalist crude oil extraction such as acid rain, black sooth, gas flaring. mangrove deforestation, etc thus, fishers and farmers are most affected as they derive their entrepreneurship from the natural environment the complex degradation challenges exacerbates across the region rather than mitigated ( UNEP,2011).This entrepreneurial challenge intensifies among female entrepreneurs who are most vulnerable to degradation challenges such as water pollution which undermines fishing among female fishers as well as soil contamination arising from oil spill which causes soil contamination and acidity against cultivation and production of food crops such as cassava for garri processing firms.

Essentially environmental degradation has wreaked havoc on small businesses and has had a severe impact on fishers and farmers. Entrepreneurship offers profit maximization, financial freedom, creates employment opportunities and creates various business opportunities. Thus entrepreneurship has been a source of livelihood and survival for entrepreneurs. The 2023 National Bureau of stattics report, suggest that small and medium enterprises (SMEs) constitute almost 90% of all businesses in Nigeria (NBS, 2023). Recent decades have been marked by persistent environmental degradation challenges in the Niger delta, largely driven by capitalist oil resource extraction by transnational oil companies and exponential rise in environmental degradation such as mangrove deforestation. At the micro business level, many SMES businesses in the Niger delta particularly fishers and farmers have been stagnated or often pushed out of business some shift away from traditional sectors (fishing) to learn other trades such as textile, hair dressing, fashion and design, arts and crafts etc. However, despite such shifts traditional entrepreneurs such as fishers and farmers who suffer much of the brunt of environmental degradation continue to be marginalized and sidestepped in research and policy makers.

Against this backdrop, this study examines degradation effects of water pollution, soil contamination and mangrove deforestation and how they undermine entrepreneurship. The study aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge in this field by highlighting an important entrepreneurial challenge faced by SMEs in the Niger Delta namely environmental degradation. The study follows debates which argue that the natural environment affects entrepreneurship (Gnyawali & Fogel, 1994; Maes, 2003; Baran & Velickaite, 2008; Ogbanga et al. 2018; Oboreh, 2024). More specifically, the study explores degradation challenges -by SMEs in the Niger Delta.

Theoretical Framework: Planned Behavior Theory

The study of entrepreneurship and degradation nexus has attracted a number of theoretical perspectives (Driessen, 2003; Dixon, & Clifford, 2007; Anugwom, 2011; Igwe & Amadi, 2015). This study theorizes planned behavior as a broad and flexible element of entrepreneurship that operates within the economic workings of enterprises and which is particularly evident within the socio-economic dimensions of entrepreneurship. Environmental degradation as a constraint to entrepreneurship, reflect the divergent ways entrepreneurs are limited and in particular constricted to fully maximize their entrepreneurial potentials, thereby providing openings for arguments on strategic entrepreneurship. This study therefore emphasizes the critical importance of planned behavior in entrepreneurship. Planned behavior elements are not only integral to innovative and strategic entrepreneurship ——but also offers a distinct entrepreneurship as an essential and legitimate feature of strategic entrepreneurship (Djordevic,2013). And whilst entrepreneurship is essential for private sector development and economic growth, it also strengthens micro enterprises —a defining element of entrepreneurship. It is this entrepreneurial drive which emanates from innovative entrepreneurship that makes planned behavior a suitable theoretical approach to examine environmental degradation and strategic entrepreneurship “and which provides a transformative dynamic.

The theory of planned behavior is a social psychology theory which posits that planning and commitment to implementation of such plans is essential in human interaction and broader social relationship (Ajzen, 2012; La Barbera, & Ajzen, 2020).

Much of the study on the relationship between environmental degradation and entrepreneurship is based on the assumption that planned behavior could foster strategic entrepreneurship against environmental constraints drawing on studies in sustainable entrepreneurship (Sreenivasan &. Suresh,2023). Following Rozenkowska (2023), theoretical debates on planned behaviors have explored a wide range of issues extending from production to consumption. Such theoretical perspectives have focused on planned behavior as a set of human interaction mechanisms that arises from systemic arrangement (planning) through systemic process.

Other prior theoretical perspectives have provided insight into the relevance of planned behavior in organizational efficiency. For instance, Djordevic (2013) argues that planned behavior is central to strategic entrepreneurship thereby improving entrepreneurial performance. Similar theoretical debates have also analyzed planned behavior in the energy sector. For example, Canova, and Manganelli (2020) examined dynamics of energy-saving behaviors in formal workplaces drawing on the theory of planned behavior.

Recent studies posit that planned behavior is directly opposite to non strategic planning behaviors (Ajzen, 2012; Willis, et al.2020). The theory of planned behavior and the social identity approach: A new look at group processes and social norms in the context of student binge drinking. This theory suggests that entrepreneurs should plan and execute such plans in line with organizational objectives for efficiency.

In our context strategic entrepreneurship norms and innovation entrepreneurial activities could be actualized through planned behavior. In the context of our study to overcome the constraint of environmental degradation a planned behavior is essential for a strategic entrepreneurship.

Fig 1. Planned Behavior Framework

Source: Ajzen, (1991, 2015) The theory of planned behavior (TPB) model

In the light of entrepreneurial performance, the above framework shown in Fig 1. suggests that entrepreneurs should be guided by behavioral norms. They should further develop attitudes towards such behaviors such beliefs are classified as normative and subjective. The beliefs lead to control as well as perceived behavioral control. Such control dynamics are linked to the intentions of entrepreneurs and their overall behavior which manifest in dynamics of control. These interacting behavioral framework constitutes the core values of entrepreneurs in the pursuit of enterprises and profit motives.

In what follows, the study examined some of the environmental degradation problems of entrepreneurs in the Niger Delta. In the alternative, suggests approaches to strategic entrepreneurship.

Degradation Problems Facing Niger Delta Entrepreneurs

There has been a research gap on fishers and farmers, the traditional entrepreneurs in the Niger Delta, the dimensions of environmental degradation and their mode of survival for sustainable entrepreneurship, as well as the need for innovative and strategic entrepreneurship as alternative options. More recently, Obiong, (2024) examined entrepreneurship and economic development potentials. This study explores the challenges that Niger Delta entrepreneurs face in the context of oil extraction induced environmental degradation, taking cognizance of the poor economic condition of the region despite its crude oil wealth, environmental factors, and the current micro economic effects on entrepreneurs have not been given adequate attention. Thus, there has been a dearth of research on the entrepreneurs, particularly fishers and farmers. Consequently, this study seeks to address this gap by navigating the environmental degradation problems faced by entrepreneurs in the Niger Delta

The peculiar environmental problem faced by entrepreneurs in the Niger Delta who are predominantly farmers and fishers stem from the degradation of the natural environment as a result of oil extraction by multinational oil companies. While entrepreneurs face similar problems of finance, size and regulator challenges in most developing countries, the complex environmental problems face by entrepreneurs in the Niger Delta calls for urgent scholarly and policy attention in the region.

Water pollution, gas flaring, acid rain, mangrove deforestation, soil contamination, in an increasingly poor economy and rent seeking state system constitute environmental degradation problems facing SMEs. While most of the entrepreneurs lack professional business skills with limited access to finance and business networks that could strengthen their business, unfortunately environment degradation aggravates these problems. In what follows, these environmental problems will be elaborated to understand the distinct character of their occurrence.

For our purpose, the study will focus on water pollution, soil contamination and mangrove deforestation to offer new insights that deepens the understanding of specific contexts of such degradation. These entrepreneurs face several constraints that limit their overall productive capability and profit maximization (Amadi et al 2022). In a recent study Oboreh (2024) identified several constraints to entrepreneurship which among others include poverty. The rest of the study will elaborate some of these trends and the need for strategic entrepreneurship.

METHODOLOGY

This is a qualitative research which adopted exploratory approach. The basis for exploratory approach is to provide insights and offer new pathways for further research agenda (Parasuraman et al., 2007: 56). The research focused on two predominant SMEs, in the study area namely fishers and farmers since they are the dominate entrepreneurs largely affected by environmental degradation. The study explored some of the active SMEs to understand the underlying degradation problems and implications for innovative and strategic entrepreneurship

METHODS AND DATA

Research Design

This study is a qualitative research, which adopted survey design to study environmental degradation impact in entrepreneurs in the Niger Della. Data were collected from a representative sample of the population and the result obtained was generalized on the entire population in the study area. Survey was suitable to explore longitudinal degradation trends across the studied localities to deepen the understanding of degradation/entrepreneurship contexts. The target group was the top entrepreneurs, who own the business and their key workers. The entrepreneurs were identified based on industry standards such as size and turnover to ensure the understanding of environmental degradation problems. as well as the innovative impacts or otherwise in overcoming such problems and how this either improves or impede entrepreneurial development.

The study focused on the Niger Delta region, which is made up of nine oil-producing states: Abia, Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta, Edo, Imo, Ondo, and Rivers. The region faces complex socio-political problem, including environmental degradation due to oil extraction. Two categories of SMEs operating in the Niger Delta have been identified based on the Small and Medium Enterprises Development Agency of Nigeria’s (SMEDAN) classification of SMEs. The first category are fishers (example local fisher men and women, fish sellers and fish farmers etc), which are active in exploring the rivers and high seas as farmers with the aim of economic profit and livelihood, marketing or selling of the fish, processing of fish value chains and wider entrepreneurial involvement)the second category includes farmers(cassava and yam farmers, garri processing plants, vegetable farmers, palm produce farmers, plantain farmers, grains including maize etc), which are active in the areas of planting, harvesting , storing and selling to various customers and end users etc.

Sampling Technique and data

An initial sample consisting of 1,251 SMEs was identified using the convenience sample method (Frost, 2024). Entrepreneurs were invited to participate in the survey through a formal invitation letter addressed to the management. The consent of 399 SMEs were obtained, the SMEs in fishing services, had 298 entrepreneurs, while farmers was 101 entrepreneurs. Parrticipants were drawn from three communities from three different states in the Niger Delta namely; Burutu (Delta State), Bodo (Rivers State),Nembe (Bayelsa State). Further a convenience sampling technique was adopted to select forty (40) participants from each of the community bringing a total of four hundred (400) participants. The Three (3) communities in three States in the Niger Delta namely; Bodo in Rivers State, Burutu in Delta State and Nembe in Bayelsa State were conveniently sampled for the study as fishing and farming communities with evidence of serial oil spill, mangrove deforesting and water pollution.These coastal oil rich communities with predominantly fishers and farmers have a wide range of local entrepreneurs who are often confronted with the problems of oil exploration induced environmental degradation. The entrepreneurs were identified based on industry standards such as size and turnover to ensure the understanding of environmental degradation problems as well as the innovative impacts or otherwise in overcoming such problems and how this either improves or impede entrepreneurial development.

The instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire titled; “Navigating Environmental Degradation Challenges of Entrepreneurs Questionnaire (NEDCEQ)”. The questionnaire was self -administered to elicit data from the participants. The target group was the top entrepreneurs, who own the business and their key workers who are knowledgeable of multinational oil extraction and its degradation impacts on entrepreneurs.

Data Presentation and Analysis

Research Question: 1

To what extent does soil contamination predict poor crop yield and food crop production decline by entrepreneurs in the Niger Delta?

Table-1. Analysis of Research Question One

Source: Field Data, (2025)

Interpretation

The various responses from Table 1 show that soil contamination predicts poor crop yield and food crop production decline by entrepreneurs in the Niger Delta. From the responses to the item statements, 69% of the respondents agreed that “ Oil spill exacerbates soil acidity and renders the soil unfertile for cultivation” while 31% disagreed, this shows that the majority of the respondents agreed with the statement that “oil spill exacerbates soil acidity and renders the soil unfertile for cultivation ”.

Responses to the second statement; “garri processing entrepreneurs are often out of business as cassava plants and crops die as a result of serial oil spill”, 57% responded in the affirmative while 43% disagreed, which meant that the majority (57%) of the respondents agreed that garri processing entrepreneurs are often out of business as cassava plants and crops die as a result of serial oil spill.

In the third item statement; “the most vulnerable groups to soil contamination are farm based entrepreneurs who predominantly till the soil for cultivation”, 62% of the respondents agreed while 38% disagreed.

Responses to the fourth statement; “entrepreneurs often experience poor crop yield and harvest as a result of soil contamination from oil spill ” show that,, 53% responded in the affirmative while 47% disagreed, thus, majority (53%) agreed.

The fifth statement states that; “soil contamination has adverse implications for sustainable entrepreneurship” responses suggest that 67% of the respondents are in the affirmative while 33% disagree. Hence, it can be deduced that to a large extent soil contamination predicts poor crop yield and food crop production decline by entrepreneurs in the Niger Delta.

Research Question: 2

To what extent does water pollution predict decrease in quantity of fish caught by fishing entrepreneurs in the Niger Delta?

Table-2. Analysis of Research Question Two

Source: Field Data, (2025)

Interpretation

Responses to the questionnaire as presented in Table 2 suggest that in response to the item statement; “fishers experience poor catch as a result of pollution of rivers in their communities through contamination of rivers”, 60% of the respondents agreed while 40% had a negative view. This suggests that majority of the respondents agreed with the statement.

Response to the second statement; “fishes that inhabit the mangroves and swamps migrate as a result of water pollution thereby resulting in livelihood vulnerability of entrepreneurs”, shows that 78% agreed while 22% disagreed, which means that majority of the respondents (78%) agreed that fishes that inhabit the mangroves and swamps migrate as a result of water pollution thereby resulting to livelihood vulnerability of entrepreneurs.

The third statement; “due to out-migration of fishes, fishers are systemically disempowered with minimal catch of fish”, 64% of the respondents agreed while 36% disagreed. This shows that out-migration of fishes, systemically disempower fishers who make minimal catch

In the fourth statement; “most fishing entrepreneurs are vulnerable to water pollution which also serves as source of drink”, 77% responded in the affirmative while 23% disagreed. This suggests that majority (77%) of the respondents agreed with the statement.

The fifth statement; “increasing pollution of water has a negative implication for innovative and sustainable entrepreneurship ” responses to this statement showed that 60% of the respondents are in the affirmative while 40% disagree. Thus, increasing pollution of water has a negative implication for innovative and sustainable entrepreneurship. Hence, it can be deduced that to a large extent, water pollution has a negative implication for fishing entrepreneurship.

Research Question:3

To what extent does mangrove deforestation predict systemic disempowerment of entrepreneurs who derive their livelihood from forest resources?

Table-3 Analysis of Response to Research Question Three

Source: Field Data, (2025)

Interpretation

Responses presented in Table 3 to the item statement; “there is serial burning, clearing and falling of trees and shrubs in the mangroves for prospecting of crude oil, which causes despoliation and destroys entrepreneurs’ access to mangrove resources” show that, 53% of the respondents agreed while 47% disagreed, which suggests that serial bush burning, clearing of the mangroves for prospecting of crude oil causes despoliation and undermines entrepreneurs’ access to mangrove resources.

Response to the second statement; “most farming and fishing entrepreneurs are often negatively impacted with mangrove deforestation as animals, fishes and economic trees which are sources of income are destroyed”, 58% agreed as against 42% that disagreed which suggest that the majority (58%) of the respondents agreed.

The third statement; “mangrove deforestation causes ecological imbalance and destruction of fish ecological zones” had, 62% respondents in the affirmative while 38% disagreed. This suggests that mangrove deforestation causes ecological imbalance and destruction of fish ecological zones, which undermines entrepreneurial growth and development.

In the fourth statement; “animals that inhabit the mangroves which is a source of food and income to the entrepreneurs are either displaced or extinct through distant migration or death”, 73% agreed while 27% disagreed. This means that the majority (73%) of the respondents agreed with the statement that animals that inhabit the mangroves which is a source of food and income to the entrepreneurs are either displaced or extinct through distant migration or death.

The fifth statement; “mangrove deforestation has negative implication for innovative entrepreneurship”, responses to this statement showed that 81% of the respondents responded in the affirmative while 19% disagreed. Thus, mangrove deforestation has negative implication for innovative entrepreneurship. Hence, it could be deduced that to a large extent mangrove deforestation predicts systemic disempowerment of farming or agricultural based entrepreneurs who derive their livelihood from forest resources.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

Despite the fundamental importance of entrepreneurship in economic development of the Niger Delta and Nigeria in general, the ability to overcome environmental degradation remains increasingly challenging. Our study and its findings has lend credence to this assertion.

As our filed analyses suggest there are divergent environmental degradation such as water pollution, which has made it difficult for fishing entrepreneurs to meet their core subsistence and profit maximization needs. In Nembe, as in Burutu and Bodo our analyses show adverse water pollution among fishing and farming communities. For example, in Nembe, several indigenous people including women within the community such as fishing communities, like Crispin, are faced with difficulties to survive as they depend on the waters for fishing and land for farming¹.

Similarly, in several local communities of Burutu and Bodo, as our findings suggest, that entrepreneurs experience various forms of vulnerability as a result of environmental degradation emanating from oil extraction. The fundamental sustainable entrepreneurial issues in relation to dimensions of environmental degradation have been explored in various contexts from our analyses. Also a variety of scholars have sought to explore the relationships of entrepreneurs with their natural environment, as well as how the economic, social and ecological environmental processes promote or mar entrepreneurship (Anokhin & Schulze, 2009).

With regards to soil contamination, our findings show that the primary cause of soil contamination and land degradation has been serial oil spill. In early work in this field, soil contamination was seen as an additional structural feature of environmental degradation, often portrayed as disruptive due to the capitalist penetration of the rural peasant Niger Delta societies pointing to the need to cope from environmental risks (Beck, 2013). Similarly, Peet & Watts (1996:5) explain, that commercialization and “market integration dislocated traditional forms of resource management. Thus, the destruction of the ecosystem in the process of capitalist accumulation in our context, crude oil extraction by oil multinationals and the complex implications on entrepreneurial vulnerability constitute important research agenda on the need for more strategic, innovative and sustainable entrepreneurship.

Similarly, a range of studies and case examples have emerged to demonstrate the various ways land degradation have undermined the livelihood and efficiency of entrepreneurs, for example, debates about soil conservation (Blaikie 1985), deforestation (Durham 1995), gas flaring in the Niger delta (Amadi, 2023), land use (Hecht & Cockburn 1990) have ben relevant in environmental degradation studies and entrepreneurship debates. Amadi and Igwe (2015) emphasize the notion of resources as socially and politically constructed and in particular, central to the discussion of entrepreneurship and has resulted in important ways on how environmental degradation undermines entrepreneurship including the existence and survival of the entrepreneurs and their enterprise from various dimensions of environmental degradation.

It is evident that soil contamination has divergent adverse effects on entrepreneurs. For example, responses to question one; Show that there is adverse effects of degradation, which equally has adverse implications for sustainable entrepreneurship. This is consistent with the findings by Emarl (2020), who in their study, show a strong tendency in their data of persistent marginalization of entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship in the Niger Delta because of over dependence on crude oil. This corroborates the findings of UNEP (2011) and UNDP (2006) who noted that entrepreneurs face complex environmental degradation constraints.

Our findings suggest that entrepreneurial vulnerability persists with soil contamination and results in increasing poor crop yield and decline in food crop production by entrepreneurs. This is in line with the findings by a number of recent studies (Odozi and Omotayo, 2023; Padma, Girivasuki, & Vanaja, 2022; Amadi, 2023). This scenario has serious implications for innovative entrepreneurship.

According to Ayanlade and Proske, (2015) wetland degradation has among others resulted in loss of ecosystem services in the Niger Delta. Thereby being one of the most degraded regions in the world (UNEP, 2011). Studies have further identified soil contamination and its adverse effects on livelihood and over- all adverse effects on entrepreneurs (Okon, & Uwah, 2022). For example, works on entrepreneurship and sustainable livelihood analyze the importance of a dialectical relationship between entrepreneurs and their involvement in various sources of survival and means of livelihood, which derive from the immediate natural environment (Inegbedion, & Ogbari, 2021).

Particularly, pivotal for sustainable entrepreneurship is survival of the entrepreneurs where requisite efforts should be made to create a healthy environment that can enable effective agricultural cultivation, ability to plant, nurture and harvest food crops for the farming communities (UNEP, 2011).While the fishing entrepreneurs migrate through the water ways to distant fishing pots as fishers (iIrikana, 2015), contamination of the water ways and natural environment remains neglected(Amnesty Interntioal, 2018).

Indeed, UNEP (2011) shows that in various instances there is soil contamination emanating from either ruptured oil pipelines or sabotage by the oil bearing communities, which gives rise to oil spill that contaminates the soils. Soil contamination thus, makes the spill to be acidic and unproductive. This scenario has the tendency to systematically disempower the agricultural entrepreneurs as their crop yields increasingly decline (Amnesty Internation, 2018). A healthy and fertile soil is central to the survival of agricultural entrepreneurs particularly farm based enterprises. This reflects the urgent need to understand the problems of soil contamination in entrepreneurship research, as well as the broader sustainable development implications of constrained related to land degradation. In the Niger Delta, soil contamination is historically central to crude oil extraction.

Correspondingly, a longstanding literature in the field of soil contamination or land degradation suggests that oil spill, or at least the effect of crude oil on soil, may lead to increased contamination or degradation of soil. This is reflected in existing practice of crude oil extraction where several volume of oil inadvertently or otherwise contaminates the soil. Much have been elaborated in an empirical study about the effect of contamination in enabling decline of soil quality and over all fertility (Singh, Moffat and Linden, 1995) or resulting in poor crop yield and harvests by farm entrepreneurs. In practice, soil contamination has frequently been given a low priority, as little attention has been paid by researchers to understanding the complex entrepreneurial problems involved in soil contamination. It is thus challenging to understand the various ways soil contamination, entrepreneurial vulnerability and shift to crude oil, hold in sustainable entrepreneurship in the Niger Delta context, given the prevalence of decline in agricultural harvest, poor soil quality, and lack of access to sources of funding or adequate state policy response on remediation. In these contexts, it is likely that soil contamination will, in fact, reduce the over- all livelihood and survival of farming and fishing entrepreneurs.

Thus, our finding suggests that soil contamination is essential to overcome entrepreneurial vulnerability and increasing decline of crop yield and food crop production in the Niger Delta.

Our research question further suggests that water pollution associated with crude oil extraction induced oil spill is evident and undermines fishing entrepreneurs, which has resulted in distortion of major livelihoods notably fishing among various fishing entrepreneurs in the region. In a related study, Irikana (2015) made similar findings suggesting that most fishers are often systemically disempowered as a result of oil spill related water pollution. In their study, Emuedo and Emuedo (2014) showed that oil spill has been a perennial problem in the Niger Delta and has complex adverse effects.

In line with our field data, a longstanding literature suggests that water pollution, leads to increasing entrepreneurial vulnerability. Based on recent literature, water pollution will increase the risk of humans, plants and animals to meet their survival and existential needs, while water may make living things thrive its pollution is dangerous. Through its link to healthy living, water pollution is rooted in complex adverse effects to various economic activities, which entrepreneurship is one.

With the rise of industrial capitalism, industrial pollution essentially has expanded the level and intensity of pollution which water pollution is one of them making degradation a defining factor (Okecha, 2000). This effect of pollution has several effects on entrepreneurship as our findings tend to suggest. First, water pollution gives rise to a common sense of destruction of water for both consumption and other uses. Second, water pollution leads to the death of various creatures that inhabit the water such as fish, crayfish, prawn, oysters, and prawn etc, which are sources of food and income earner for the entrepreneurs. Such pollution occurs through some mechanisms such as oil spill, through crude oil extraction, wherein entrepreneurs are most adversely affected. As Ruth Maclean, aptly captured the plight of Niger Delta fisherwoman and water pollution (Maclean,2021).

Yet, the question remains as to whether this pollution is remedied to overcome the challenges of fishing entrepreneurs. There is some reason to think that the risks (Bates, 2010: 104) or ‘systemic vulnerability’ remains perverse (Doner, Ritchie, & Slater, 2005). For instance, UNEP (2011) argues that the adverse and complex effects of degradation particularly the clean-up of the environment, will take over three decades. Such complex degradation, has been important to the understanding of challenges to entrepreneurship, while Okecha.(2000) sees the relative presence of existential threat as an important explanatory factor of vulnerability, other recent studies point out the various ways it undermines entrepreneurship Such vulnerability as Amadi and Ogbanga (2016) argued makes clear that most contemporary -affected communities in the Global South are helpless, weak or poor. This is embodied in the central puzzle: ‘How can environmental degradation that affects entrepreneurs in in the Niger Delta be remedied? To understand this, decisively helps to make sense of the various ways water pollution, soil contamination and mangrove deforestation exists and more or less systematically help to destroy or contaminate the environment against various uses by entrepreneurs

Essentially, shedding more light on the empirical realities of this puzzle’s complex mechanism— water pollution— Inegbedion, and Ogbari, (2021) have examined entrepreneurial innovation and sustainable development. Such viewpoint extends to the link between survival pressures and risks of entrepreneurs in most water polluted Niger Delta communities, offering various explanations for why pollution—entrepreneurship—vulnerability interface is essential and highlights increasing challenges of building resilient mechanisms in poor, weak and fragile contexts (Aghalino, & Aghoghovwia, 2022).

Our filed analyses and responses show that water pollution has been evident in the creeks, and running waters in the Niger Delta and in turn reduces the quantity of fish by entrepreneurs. Findings further highlight that persistent mangrove deforestation linked to capitalist crude oil extraction destroys the flora and fauna of the local communities and results in systemic disempowerment of entrepreneurs who derive their enterprise and livelihood from forest resources. This finding is consisted with a number of studies. For example, UNEP (2011) elaborates that forests, farm lands and creeks of the Niger Delta are serially polluted. In a related account, UNEP (2006) found that deforestation has resulted in despoliation in the region. These findings support the assertion that mangrove deforestation should be checked to promote and strengthen the resilience and survival of entrepreneurs.

In terms of mangrove deforestation and how it predicts systemic disempowerment of entrepreneurs who derive their enterprises and livelihood from forest resources, our field data show that following the destruction of the mangrove forests as a result of prospecting for oil through falling of trees or other forms of deforestation, the norm of forest reserve becomes undermined and destroyed as the flora and fauna is destroyed. Persistent deforestation linked to capitalist oil extraction destroys the flora and fauna of the local communities and results in systemic disempowerment of agriculture based entrepreneurs. Such despoliation constitutes a major factor in systemic disempowerment of entrepreneurs who subsist on various forest resources such as medicinal plants, wild fruits, trees for craft making, mushrooms and various animals whose economic values are of immense importance and value to entrepreneurship.

Post- colonial societies and indeed oil bearing communities in the Global South such as the Niger Delta are faced with dire deforestation which pose social, economic and environmental risks to their existence and survival (Amadi etal. 2016). These communities are less granted the much needed policy attention to promote greening and restore or mitigate destruction of forest resources (Amadi, 2023). Despite the accepted norms of forest reserve and suitability practices in international conventions, the practices and strategies of multinational oil companies undermine sustainability practices or a viable strategy (UNEP, 2012). Consequently, the forests and local communities are put in jeopardy through the crisis of oil extraction. This type of deforestation holds complex risks of survival for the oil bearing communities and entrepreneurs Critically, deforestation hold the potential to decimate plant species and land contamination while creating major disruption of soil cultivation capacity, as plants are destroyed and several endangered animal species are either displaced, forced into migration or killed. Such deforestation creates sharp contrasts to sustainable entrepreneurship and forest reserve that may undermine support for ecological growth and development.

This limits the understanding of entrepreneurial disempowerment in harnessing forest resource contexts as there are a number of factual deforestation effects and potential threats to the existence and survival of entrepreneurs, which might contribute to poor economic growth. This includes, massive falling of woods for manufacturing of indigenous mortar and pestles, and similar entrepreneurial craft making materials etc. In this context, the survival of entrepreneurs are contestable.

Relatedly, entrepreneurs are insulated to a large extent from (i) internal control or resources on their lands and (ii) exposed to threats and vulnerability outcome from external appropriation or extraction of these resources. These prevailing challenges, disrupt and undermine the livelihood of these entrepreneurs and constrain their ability to leverage on their natural environment for their enterprise and in particular to earn a living. Fundamentally, representing a compulsive shift from self -reliant to external social relations and interaction (Spruyt, 2009).

In the Niger Delta various green and natural environments offered by the forests are thus destroyed and survival of entrepreneurs and their enterprise is not guaranteed, rather systemic threat largely leads to state plunder than to state–society bargaining or institution building (Moore, 2008). The complex effects of degradation continues to trigger entrepreneurial vulnerability. The overall effect of this persistent context is that entrepreneurs do not have control over their environment and capitalist resource pressures push them further away from their natural environment and its resource thereby resulting in systemic disempowerment.

Thus, the responses from our survey and extant literature suggest that persistent mangrove deforestation linked to capitalist oil extraction destroys the flora and fauna and results in systemic disempowerment of entrepreneurs.

CONCLUSION

Despite the foundational importance of entrepreneurship to the wider economic development in the developing countries, entrepreneurial issues have not been given adequate policy attention. This lack of attention as this study shows reflect in divergent ways: water pollution, soil contamination, mangrove deforestation-all providing evidence of environmental degradation/

The absence of effective innovative and strategic entrepreneurial policies and progrmmes in the wake of environmental degradation and poor policy response and resource crises that undermine entrepreneurial growth and development etc. These challenges, not withstanding, innovative entrepreneurship and motivation for entrepreneurship is a central to private sector growth —indeed, ‘entrepreneurship has the potential to stimulate economic growth through empowerment job creation and enterprise promotion and development skills etc. and in particular sustain and promote overall socio-economic growth.

While entrepreneurial policy and reform agenda in the low- income countries should be broadly prioritized, there are unique elements of entrepreneurship in specific contexts, which must be effectively harnessed to stimulate economic growth and development. This suggest the need for greater attention from the international community. While environmentally degraded regions are by no way a homogeneous group, some basic challenges necessitate distinctive policy response.

RECOMMENDATIONS: TOWARDS STRATEGIC ENTREPRENEURSHIP

The complex effects of environmental degradation create distinct challenges for entrepreneurship and the need for urgent response to build and sustain the capacity for entrepreneurs. Thus, issues of water pollution, soil contamination, and mangrove deforestation and similar degradation problems in the region that destroy the natural environment. And in particular the loss of control of entrepreneurial resources by entrepreneurs suggests that there are limited revenue for entrepreneurs in the studied area In this context, therefore, more attention should be given to strategic entrepreneurship-a process through which entrepreneurship could be promoted and protected in various contexts. This could be understood as an approach, or policy measure to rebuild, redirect and reinvigorate entrepreneurs. For example, persistent degradation will most is likely destroy the natural environment and pose grater challenges for entrepreneurial reforms following the destruction of various resources. Djordevic(2013) highlights that strategic entrepreneurship involves taking entrepreneurial action through planned approach. More specifically, it encompasses engaging in simultaneous opportunity seeking and competitive advantage seeking behaviors to design and implement entrepreneurial strategies to create wealth.

To elaborate on strategic entrepreneurship, I follow Schröder, et al (2021), who argued that strategic entrepreneurship (SE) combines strategic management and entrepreneurship. The argument is that irrespective of constraining or challenging environment, firms can create efficient profit maximization and wealth creation when simultaneously pursuing advantage-seeking and opportunity-seeking behavior if they adopt strategic plans. They outlined and recommended some features as follows:

Identifying and capitalizing on opportunities: Amidst difficulties such as environmental constraints, strategic entrepreneurship through systemic planning helps entrepreneurs to identify and capitalize on opportunities. Thus in the Niger delta context, policies that identify and promote opportunities and in particular capitalize n such opportunities should be strengthened.

Maximizing the organization’s wealth: There are various sources of revenue and wealth for entrepreneurs, therefore firms must efficiently maximize such resources to overcome complex challenges and in he alternative promote organizational efficiency, profit maximization and wealth creation.

Knowledge sharing orientation: In difficult or challenging times, entrepreneurs should share knowledge to be able to overcome such challenges such as environmental degradation. Essentially, knowledge sharing orientation creates strategic approach to help entrepreneurs to rise beyond difficulties that could undermine their existence. Such knowledge sharing includes entrepreneurial education and core n formation that promote entrepreneurship (Nwabufo & Mamman, 2015).

Effective resource utilization: One of the basic strategic approaches to sustainable entrepreneurship is effective resource utilization. Such process entails the use of resource strictly in line with the basic focus or objective of the entrepreneur. In this context, when adverse or difficult conditions emerge, effective use and mobilization of resources helps to overcome such challenges. Therefore policies that can promote such utilization is essential for strategic entrepreneurship.

Innovation focus: To strengthen innovative and strategic entrepreneurship, there is need for innovative focus. Such focus offers opportunity on where the entrepreneur and their enterprise is going and how they seek to get their. These innovate focus offers new and dynamic idea that help entrepreneurs to overcome challenges. The entrepreneurs in the Niger Delta should build on innovative focus to overcome the complex challenges of environmental degradation.

Proactiveness and Persistence: Despite persistent challenges, entrepreneurs should remain proactive and persistent. The essence is to be able to actualize organizational goals. Therefore to achieve such goals and vision entrepreneurs should be proactive and in particular persist against all odds to be able to exist n meet the difficulties and challenges of the changing times.

Risk-taking and strategic focus: Risk taking is central to the overall success or otherwise of entrepreneurs. Such risks are often result oriented when they are in line with strategic focus of an entrepreneurship. By strategic focus entrepreneurs plan and execute such plans in a results oriented manner. Thus, while profit maximization is a central to entrepreneurship risk taking and strategic planning helps to promote profit margin and organizational efficiency.

From the foregoing, contemporary entrepreneurship in the low- income countries is a necessary condition for economic growth. Given the highlighted constraints in our context, environmental degradation, this study has offered alternative approaches to overcome environmental degradation constraints namely; strategic entrepreneurship. Thus the foundational importance of strategic entrepreneurship to broader development goals indicates that strengthening entrepreneurs will figure centrally in strategies for private sector growth and overall economic development.

Note:

Direct interview with ocal entrepreneurs in Nember (Bayelsa), Bodo (Rivers State and Burutu (Delta State) December 15^th 2024.

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