Parent-Teacher Association Support and its Effect on Academic Achievement: A Mediation Analysis of Teacher Quality in Sabah Secondary Schools

Parent-Teacher Association Support and its Effect on Academic Achievement: A Mediation Analysis of Teacher Quality in Sabah Secondary Schools

Mokilau Rudin, Dayang Rafidah Syariff M. Fuad^*, Marinah Awang

Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.907000433

Received: 19 July 2025; Accepted: 25 July 2025; Published: 22 August 2025

ABSTRACT

This study examines the direct impact of Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) support on students’ academic achievement in secondary schools in Sabah, Malaysia. It investigates whether teachers’ quality serves as a mediating factor. Informed by the model of collaborative school-community partnerships, a quantitative survey method was used with 293 participants. Four hypothetical models were examined with regression and mediation analyses by bootstrapping. Results indicated that the PTA support had a positive influence on students’ academic performance (β = 0.220, p < .001), accounting for 12% of the variance (R² = .12). PTA support similarly emerged as a strong predictor of teacher quality (β = 0.67, p < .001, R² = .67), evidence that significant parental involvement leads to stronger teaching efficacy. In addition, the teacher quality had a significant direct impact on their students’ academic performance (β = 0.82, p < .001), which explained 67% of the variance (R² = 0.67), corroborating its fundamental role in academic achievement. The mediation analysis revealed that teacher quality acts as a mediator in the relationship between PTA support and students’ academic achievement. The indirect effect was 0.35, with a 95% bootstrap confidence interval = [0.28, 0.43], meaning that the mediation was statistically significant. These results corroborate all four hypotheses and demonstrate that direct PTA support is beneficial for children; however, its full potential can be leveraged by strengthening teacher quality. This research emphasises the importance of fostering a strong home-school partnership between PTAs and schools, as well as supporting teacher training, to achieve improved educational outcomes. The relevance of this discussion to policy and practice in the Malaysian education context is explored.

Keywords: PTA Support, Student Academic Achievement, Teacher Quality, Mediator, School Quality

INTRODUCTION

The Malaysian Education Blueprint (PPPM) 2013-2025 highlighted the role of parents’ and the private sector’s participation in school capacity building (Malaysia Ministry of Education, 2013). In the third wave (2021-2025) of PPPM, primary and secondary schools will not only be the schools of choice for parents from all racial and socioeconomic backgrounds, but also for those who value quality education. The involvement of parents, the community, and the private sector in education will be given a new impetus to enhance access to, alternative access to, and the quality of education, to be provided in an integrated, effective, and efficient manner, through capitalising on the strengths of all stakeholders. Given that only 27% of the 7–17-year-old children are in school but spend the majority of their time out of school and outside the school environment, the role of the Parents-Teacher Association (PTA) and the community in children’s education will have a significant effect on the improvement of student learning (Malaysia Ministry of Education, 2013).

Parents and the community, working in collaboration with schools, have been one of the strategies to create a conducive learning environment in the formulation of a plan to inculcate Quality in education. Rather than mere supporters and cheerleaders at home, parents need to be seen as active partners in helping to enhance their children’s success. This necessitates collaboration between schools, the government, and non-governmental institutions in the community to create a learning ecosystem that extends beyond the classroom. In the 21st century, the educational climate has evolved into an expansive and interactive one, extending beyond the confines of the classroom. We can now learn anytime and anywhere, as advocated by the Malaysian Education Development Plan (PPPM) 2013-25. Location-based learning aims for lifestyle education more broadly and flexibly, which includes utilising resources and opportunities in the community and through technology.

Parental involvement in children’s education should be advocated for by every sector of society, including educators, parents, and the community. This partnership demonstrates the culture of complementary learning—no gaps left to chance, and all paths to success for students opened. The recognition of a role for parents in enhancing the quality and performance of schools has been longstanding, partly initiated through the creation of Parent-Teacher Associations (PTAs). The PTA is established under the Education Act 1996 (Act 550) and the Education Regulations (Parent-Teacher Associations) to promote consensus between parents and teachers and to foster mutual respect for their respective roles and responsibilities.

Between the PISA 2009 and 2022 international studies, it has been revealed that, in addition to interest, parents’ involvement in their children’s schooling plays a vital role. A critical contributor to higher student performance is the amount of time students spend with their parents at home. Parents who read to a child every day, or almost every day, and at least once a week or a couple of times a week during their first year in primary school had higher scores than parents who never or rarely read to their child. This is true for all levels of socioeconomic status, including low-, middle-, and high-income families.

Parent Teacher Association Support

Support from parents and teachers is two critical, but different predictors of students’ school performance and well-being. The support of teachers and parental monitoring also had a direct effect on the motivation and self-efficacy of students, as well as their academic achievement as an outcome. Crucially, parents were the most significant influence on motivation, while teachers were the best predictors of self-efficacy over time (Affuso et al., 2022). Also, the importance of parental support on the emergence of school belonging, considering instances of school shootings, is critical. In contrast, taking good care of students in the classroom fosters a sense of school-relatedness and perceived teacher support (Peng et al., 2023). Parental autonomy support and teacher support are positively related to students’ homework effort, and this relationship is mediated by autonomous motivation (Feng et al., 2019). Parental, peer, and teacher support are associated with various dimensions of student well-being. Regarding these well-being dimensions, teacher support is positively associated with self-worth and physical well-being, whereas parental support is positively related to all dimensions of well-being (Hoferichter et al., 2021). In the case of young learners in online learning environments, parents mediate between the learner and the teacher, supervising, supporting emotionally, cognitively and technically. However, their engagement varied with the child’s age and the family’s structure (Tao & Xu, 2022). Frequent parent–teacher liaison can also lead to teachers giving students more attention, which can enhance learning and highlight the importance of the team around the family (Young, 2020). Overall, parenting and teacher-supporting program has the best chances of facilitating optimal student academic and personal development (Affuso et al., 2022; Peng et al., 2023).

Teachers Quality

Teacher quality is widely accepted as a driving force behind the quality of student achievement and educational outcomes; however, its conceptualisation and operationalisation differ from country to country and setting to setting. In high-performing education systems, teacher quality is increasingly defined as a combination of expert content and pedagogical knowledge, as well as an understanding of the diverse academic, social, and emotional needs of students. These aspects are underpinned by a focus on ongoing professional learning and reflective practice (Darling-Hammond, 2021). Research suggests that teacher competence—encompassing subject skills, classroom management, and attending to and addressing learners’ needs—influences teaching quality and student learning to a significant degree, especially in specific subject areas, such as mathematics (Blömeke et al., 2022). However, research shows that years of teaching experience are not the only factor for high-quality teaching; instead, targeted professional development and support for all teachers are necessary to sustain and improve instructional quality (Graham et al., 2020). Furthermore, teacher quality is multidimensional, impacting student outcomes beyond just test scores and encompassing broader student development and long-term prospects (Petek & Pope, 2022). Assessments of the quality of teaching provided should consider both the classroom context and the characteristics of the students being served, as these factors can impact the overall effectiveness of teaching (Fauth et al., 2020). Generally, there is a need to frame teacher quality promotion as dependent on system support, continuous development, and a nuanced understanding of the complex and dynamic nature of the teaching profession (Darling-Hammond, 2021; Blömeke et al., 2022).

Student Academic Achievement

Parental and teacher support are highly related to students’ achievements, and they influence student achievement in a complementary way. The impact of teacher trust and parental control on students’ motivation and self-efficacy is a primary predictor of students’ achievement. Parents have a more substantial impact on motivation, while teachers have a greater influence on self-efficacy in the long term (Haryanto et al., 2024). The positive association between teacher-student relationships and academic achievement is moderated by parental involvement, and this effect may be more pronounced in primary school. Strong parental involvement may mitigate poorer teacher-student relationships (Zhou et al., 2024). Combined support from parents and teachers, particularly in terms of autonomy, emotional support, and academic ability, enhances students’ learning engagement. This involvement also serves as a mediator between support and performance (Peng et al., 2022). Closeness in parent-teacher relationships, as measured by involvement and the bidirectional provision of positive and constructive feedback, is linked to an increase in student performance over time (Fu et al., 2022). Students’ perception of parental academic support is positively associated with mastery-oriented achievement goals, whereas both parental and teacher monitoring are related to students’ performance goals. Taken together, these results reaffirm the importance of family-school partnerships. They also emphasise that enhancing parental and teacher support can significantly improve students’ academic success (Haryanto et al., 2024; Ashfaq et al., 2024).

HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT

The Effect of Parent-Teacher Association Support towards Teacher Quality and Student Academic Achievement.

Access to Parent-Teacher Associations (PTAs) and the quality of teachers subsequently affect student academic achievement. Studies have demonstrated that active PTA operational plans, including parent participation, communication, working with teachers and among parents, are closely associated with higher goal attainment in public secondary schools. These results underscore the importance of collaborative efforts between parents and teachers (Fu et al., 2022). The value added by teachers, in both skill and morale, as well as in their ability to provide guidance and structure to students, is also directly related to improved student performance. Teacher competency and motivation predict academic performance (Werang et al., 2024). Moreover, the interaction of parent and teacher support, particularly support for autonomy, emotion, and skill, also contributes to students’ learning engagement. This involvement mediates the association between support and achievement (Peng et al., 2022). Positive parent-teacher relationships, characterised by mutual respect and active communication, for example, continue to contribute to students’ academic success over time (Olaifa et al., 2024). The implication is that schools should foster greater PTA participation and focus on recruiting and developing competitive and committed teachers as a fundamental effort to increase students’ achievement (Zhou et al., 2024).

H1: Parent-Teacher Association support has a positive influence on Student Academic Achievement

H2: Parent-Teacher Association support has a positive influence on Teacher Quality

The Effect of Teacher Quality on Student Academic Achievement

The evidence is clear that the quality of classroom teachers is one of the most important factors shaping student performance, even if the precise way in which such an effect operates and the extent to which it is influential can differ. The quality of teaching encompasses a high standard in teaching techniques and methodologies, classroom discipline, and teachers’ attitudes towards teaching. This characteristic has been associated with positive learning outcomes in students through the enhancement of student engagement and cognitive engagement in learning (Rudin et al., 2024). However, some studies indicate that traditional measures of teacher quality, such as years of experience and formal credentials, do not necessarily have a strong correlation with student performance. This implies teacher quality has a lot more to do with particular skills and teaching approaches than with just credentials (Martin, 2023). Recent evidence suggests that both test-based and non-test-based indicators of teacher quality matter. The impact of teachers is more evident in later years and subjects (Petek & Pope, 2022). Teacher quality, particularly in the areas of knowledge of teaching and classroom management, is closely linked to effective instruction. This, in turn, supports the advancement of student learning, particularly in mathematics (König et al., 2021). In addition, the intrinsic motivation of students, fostered by the teacher’s competence, also mediates the relationship between teacher competence and academic success (Podungge et al., 2020). Such an overall conclusion suggests that while the direct effect of teacher knowledge on student achievement is weak, there is often an indirect effect through improved instructional quality and increased student motivation. This points to the importance of practical teaching skills and classroom interactions (Engida et al., 2024; Yang & Kaiser, 2022).

Indirect Effect of Parent-Teacher Association Support on Student Academic Achievement through Teacher Quality

Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) support can indirectly improve student academic achievement by enhancing teacher quality and support. Studies show that when parents actively engage with teachers through communication, attending meetings, and setting goals together, teachers feel more respected and supported. This boosts their attitudes and effectiveness in the classroom (Peng & Sun, 2022). A supportive environment enables teachers to give better emotional and instructional support to students, which in turn increases students’ motivation, self-efficacy, and engagement. These factors are crucial for academic success (Tao et al., 2022). The interaction between parent and teacher support is significant. Their combined efforts create a favourable learning climate and strengthen students’ achievement goals (Zhao et al., 2025). Moreover, when parents’ and teachers’ expectations and support strategies match, it enhances these benefits, leading to better student performance. This is especially true when both parties focus on mastery and positive achievement goals. Therefore, PTA support not only directly benefits students but also enhances teacher quality, which in turn improves student academic achievement through better teaching practices and increased student engagement (Affuso et al., 2022; Tao et al., 2022).

H3: Teacher Quality mediates the relationship between Parent Teacher Association and Student Academic Achievement.

Figure 1 shows the framework for this study. It illustrates the connections between PTA support, teacher quality, and academic achievement. PIBG support, the independent variable, affects teacher quality, which serves as a mediator and ultimately influences students’ academic success. In this framework, PTA support is the starting point. It impacts teacher quality, which is crucial for enhancing students’ academic outcomes. Academic achievement, the dependent variable, is directly affected by teacher quality. The support from PIBG and the wider community influences teacher quality.

Fig 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study

METHODOLOGY

This study involves 293 teachers from 57 primary schools in the state of Sabah, Malaysia. The sample selection used the Krejcie and Morgan (1970) formula and employed a stratified random sampling technique. Among the 293 teachers, there are more female teachers than male teachers, with females comprising 59.0% and males 41.0%. The distribution of teachers across different age groups is as follows: 20-30 years: 10 teachers (3.4%), 31-40 years: 51 teachers (17.4%), 41-50 years: 109 teachers (37.2%), and 50-60 years: 123 teachers (42.0%). This indicates that most teachers in the sample are aged between 41 and 60, with the highest percentage falling within the 50- to 60-year-old age group.

Additionally, more than half of the teachers have over 15 years of teaching experience. The largest group of respondents has 26-30 years of teaching experience. On the other hand, only a few teachers have less than 5 years or more than 35 years of teaching experience. Over 80% of the teachers hold a Bachelor’s degree, while a small number hold a Diploma or a Master’s degree. This study also looked at three categories of professional qualifications. Most teachers (over 60%) have a Teaching Certificate or Diploma (KPLI/DPLI), and nearly a third have a Bachelor’s Degree. This data suggests that the majority of teachers are qualified in education, with a smaller number holding qualifications in other fields, like a Bachelor’s Degree. Table 1 shows the demographics of these respondents.

Table 1. Demographics of the Respondents

Instrumentation

The instruments used include two questionnaires: The Teacher Quality Questionnaire, developed from the SKPMg2 Standard 4 individual record form, and the PTA Support Questionnaire, developed based on the e-Sarana PIBG. Such instruments aim to determine the relationships between teacher quality and community involvement by collecting data that can be used to investigate their effects on student achievement. Cronbach’s Alpha was used to test the validity of the tools. The Cronbach’s alphas for PTA support, teacher quality, and academic achievement scales were 0.96, 0.99, and 0.99, respectively, suggesting high internal consistency and reliability.

Data Analysis

Data for this study will be analysed through a set of regression and mediation procedures to provide an analysis of the roles of Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) support, teacher quality, and their interplay with student academic achievement. Statistical analysis will be conducted using the IBM SPSS Statistics program, with a significance level of p < .05. The direct effect of student academic outcomes will be examined through multiple regression, investigating PTA support as a mediator.

Another regression analysis will be conducted to investigate the impact of PTA support on teacher quality. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether PTA involvement can be used as an effective predictor of teacher quality. We hypothesise that high involvement of PTA will potentially lead to an effective increase in teacher performance and the effectiveness of instruction. To test the direct impact of teacher quality on student academic achievement, a second regression analysis will be conducted. Teacher quality (TQ) is assumed to be a significant determinant of student academic performance, indicating that the better the quantity of competent teachers, the better the performance of the students.

To test whether teacher quality acts as a mediator in the relationship between the level of PTA support and student academic achievement, a mediation analysis will be performed using Hayes’ (2013) PROCESS macro for SPSS. The analysis will apply the bootstrapping technique (5,000 resamples) to estimate the indirect effect and generate 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals. We chose the bootstrap method because it is a reliable approach that can help obtain the best estimates of mediation effects, particularly when the sampling distribution of indirect effects is non-normally distributed in the population.

This analytical approach enables the simultaneous consideration of both direct and indirect pathways. It offers a better insight into the relationship between PTA support for public schools and student performance through its impact on teacher quality. The application of bootstrapped mediation analysis enhances the credibility and generalizability of the results, revealing more detailed relationships among parental involvement, teaching quality, and student achievement.

RESULT

Data were gathered and explored using both descriptive and inferential statistics to investigate the correlation between PIBG support, teacher quality, and student academic performance. SPSS was used for statistical analysis, and p-values < 0.05 were considered significant. Simple linear regression analysis was used to determine the independent effect of PTA support on students’ academic achievement. The outcome is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Influence of PTA Support towards Student Academic Achievement

Notes: *** significance level at 0.01, F=40.156, p<0.01, R²=0.12

The regression analysis showed a significant positive relationship between Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) support and students’ academic achievement (β = 0.22, p < .001). This connection suggests that higher PTA involvement is associated with marginal but significant increases in student achievement. Regression analysis showed that PTA support explained 12 per cent of the variance in academic achievement (R² = 0.12), observations that not only support the importance of parental involvement but also underscore the importance of other influences on student performance. It implies that, even though PTA support helps students do well, other factors are probably a more meaningful part of the equation. These results are consistent with Hypothesis 1, indicating that joint PTA endeavours play a positive role in improving student learning outcomes. Nevertheless, the amount of variance accounted for would suggest that other relevant components (e.g., quality of instruction, motivation) should be included in future research.

Next, another regression analysis was conducted to examine the link between PTA support and teacher quality. As shown in Table 3, the results indicate a strong and significant positive relationship between teacher quality and student academic achievement.

Table 3. The Influence of PTA Support Towards Teacher Quality

Notes: *** significance level at 0.00, F=580.84, p<0.01, R²=0.67

The findings showed that PTA support had a positive and meaningful relationship with teacher quality, with a standardised coefficient of β = 0.81. The PTA support managed to explain 67% of the variation in teacher quality (R² = 0.67), indicating a substantial contribution to improving the performance of the teacher and their instructional effectiveness. These results highlight the significance of PTA engagement in fostering a supportive school climate for teaching, leading to enhanced teaching practices and increased morale among teachers. This illustrates the importance of active collaboration between schools and parents on this aspect of teacher quality.

Next, the regression results in Table 4 examine the association between teacher quality and student performance. The findings indicate a strong and positive association between the observed measures of teacher quality and student achievement, with a beta coefficient of 0.82 (p < 0.01) and a t-value of 5.68. The model accounts for 67% of the variance in student achievement, indicating that teacher qualifications have a significant impact on academic performance. These results emphasise the importance of teacher quality in improving student performance. It is, however, necessary to appreciate that there can be other reasons behind differences in attainment. Further studies could consider other factors to provide a more enriching picture of what influences student achievement.

Table 4. Influence of Teacher Quality towards Student Academic Achievement

Notes: *** significant level at 0.01, F=580.84, p<0.05, R²=0.67

To investigate whether teacher quality influences the link between PTA support and student academic success, we performed a mediation analysis. We used the bootstrap method with 5,000 resamples. The analysis results are in Table 5.

Table 5. The Indirect Effect of PTA Support Towards Student Academic Achievement Through Teacher Quality

The findings revealed a significant indirect relationship between PTA support and pupil academic performance, mediated by teacher quality, with a correlation coefficient of 0.35. This is statistically significant because the confidence interval does not contain zero. These results also provide partial support for Hypothesis 4, specifically for the effects of PTA support on student achievement and the mediating role of teacher quality. This mediating analysis showed that children tend to perform better when their parents are involved, and any school serious about raising student achievement would be wise to invest in higher levels of parent involvement. Meanwhile, the quality of the teacher in front of the class can make a profound difference in how children learn.

DISCUSSION

The results of the analysis yield significant insight into the important roles that PTA support and teacher quality have in determining student academic performance. Findings from these studies add to the evidence base, emphasising parental involvement and teacher effectiveness as catalysts of academic achievement. The findings from this study also confirm all four hypotheses (H1–H4), which illustrate both direct and indirect links between support for PTA, teacher quality, and student achievement.

The research provides strong evidence for the direct impact of PTA support on student achievement (H1). This builds upon current research that highlights the significance of parental involvement in education, as it plays a crucial role in fostering academic motivation, school belonging, and academic performance (Affuso et al., 2022; Peng et al., 2023; Feng et al., 2019). When engaged through PTAs, parents generate a cooperative space that benefits students and also increases teachers’ effectiveness in the classroom (Young, 2020; Fu et al., 2022). These results have significance for Malaysia, where changes in education policy now advocate parental involvement in school governance. Through PTA participation, parents can collaborate with teachers to enhance student achievement, aligning with national policies that promote community engagement in schools.

Moreover, this study also emphasises the substantial predictive value of Parent-Teacher Association support in the quality of teaching (H2). This result implies that the impact of parental involvement extends beyond students’ achievement to the school context, particularly in terms of the teaching style. Active PTA participation, resource mobilisation, frequent communication, and the setting of common goals among stakeholders create a positive learning environment, which increases teacher morale, motivation, and efficacy (Peng & Sun, 2022; Werang et al., 2024). This result suggests that Malaysian policymakers should enhance the involvement of PTAs in educational practices. By fostering positive interactions between parents and teachers, schools can create a more supportive atmosphere that benefits both teachers and students. In Malaysia, where teacher quality continues to rank high in the national education strategy, strengthening the support of PTA could be another possible way to improve teaching and learning outcomes.

The study’s results conclude that teacher quality has a positive effect on student academic achievement (H3). The results are consistent with the growing evidence that the quality of teaching, particularly in terms of teaching skills, classroom management, and explicit instruction, constitutes one of the strongest predictors of student success (Darling-Hammond, 2021; Blömeke et al., 2022). For Malaysia, this highlights the importance of ongoing investments in professional development for teachers. Some may argue that the value of formal credentials in predicting teaching effectiveness is overstated, but the findings suggest that the pedagogical skills and practices employed by teachers are better predictors of student achievement than traditional qualifications alone (König et al., 2021; Petek & Pope, 2022). For education policy in Malaysia, this finding calls for a shift in emphasis from formal qualifications (in-service courses) to enhancing teachers’ competencies in their everyday practice and developing a culture of teacher learning alongside formal qualifications.

The study also confirms a mediating effect of teacher quality on the relationship between PTA support and student academic performance (H4). The substantial indirect effect test, which originated from bootstrapping analysis, underscores the importance of teacher quality in translating PTA support for students into positive student outcomes. This finding highlights the crucial role of collaborative activities between parents and teachers in providing emotional support, establishing common expectations, and offering feedback (Tao et al., 2022; Zhao et al., 2025). This result, in the Malaysian context, lends support to the importance of forming closer parent-teacher relationships; indirectly supporting the emphasis on creating school-community partnerships in the country’s national education policy. It implies that reform initiatives focused primarily on students or teachers, in isolation from one another, are likely to be counterproductive, and that these two groups need to be integrated through partnerships and collaboration.

The study’s results have a significant impact on policy and practice in education in Malaysia. The positive associations found between PTA support, teacher quality, and student performance suggest that increased collaborative efforts between parents and teachers may lead to significant improvements in student outcomes. The Malaysian Ministry of Education might want to consider enhancing parents’ involvement in education through their educational policies, for example, by extending the role of PTAs in school management and decision-making, if they are already involved in this area. Boosting PTA involvement may make a difference in addressing challenges such as teacher burnout and student disengagement, which are pervasive issues in Malaysian schools.

Additionally, by focusing on teacher quality as a fundamental factor in student success, the study reinforces the importance of continuous teacher professional development being entrenched within Malaysia’s national educational policies. These findings suggest that teacher quality encompasses not only professional qualifications but also ongoing professional development in teaching approaches, classroom management, and student engagement. This possibility would be consistent with the initiatives already in progress in Malaysia (e.g., the Professional Development and Teacher Empowerment programs). However, it may also require more nuanced assistance with practical and emotional support programs for teachers.

The results also have implications for Malaysia’s policy towards community participation. In recent years, Malaysia has also made strides towards a more inclusive education system, with a growing trend of awareness about the importance of school-community partnerships. The study’s findings make a compelling argument for strengthening the role of PTAs in improving educational outcomes. Policymakers may promote the designation of more resources to foster the active involvement of parents, not only in the academic domain but also in the development of a supportive school culture. This might involve training parents in how to better connect with teachers and schools, along with more formal mechanisms for providing feedback and fostering collaboration.

Next, the study’s use of the teacher quality mediator role in PTA support and student achievement suggests that interventions to enhance teacher quality should be embedded in a broader, systemic approach (comprising parental involvement and teacher quality development). Schools, in conjunction with LEAs, should create an ethos of feedback and support between teacher and parent. Such an integrative approach can offer a more comprehensive perspective on student success, supporting the holistic development of Malaysian students, in line with Malaysia’s broader educational aspirations: improving learning outcomes and developing the whole child. The results of this study provide important lessons for Malaysian education policymakers and practitioners. Malaysia can significantly advance educational outcomes and meet its national educational objectives by enhancing PTA support, investing in teacher quality, and establishing a more collaborative relationship between families and schools.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Certain limitations must be considered when interpreting the results of this study. One limitation of a cross-sectional design is, of course, that we are unable to make causal or develop longitudinal inferences regarding the relations among PTA, teacher quality, and academic performance over time. A longer-term study is needed to evaluate the sustained effects of these factors fully. Second, if biases occur when self-reported answers are given (e.g., social desirability, interpretation), this can influence the study report, especially if the factor being measured is teacher quality. Third, this survey was administered in a selected setting: daily secondary schools of southern Malaysia. This may limit the generalizability of the findings to other school types (e.g., residential or rural schools) or regions with varying socioeconomic statuses. Finally, despite finding a significant indirect effect in the mediation analysis, other potential mediators and moderators, such as school leadership, student motivation, or family background, were not examined. These considerations might help improve the model.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

Future research should explore the use of longitudinal or mixed-methods approaches to gain a deeper understanding of the complex interactions among parents, teachers, and students. It is essential to consider additional factors, such as student engagement, emotional well-being, and digital learning readiness, as these could provide a more comprehensive view of the influences on academic outcomes. Broadening the research to include different types of schools, such as those with fewer students, inclusive education settings, or private institutions, would offer more diverse insights. Comparative studies across states or countries could reveal how policies, cultural values, and PTA structures affect parental support and teacher quality. Future studies could also benefit from investigating reciprocal relationships, such as how proactive communication by teachers might increase parental involvement over time, offering a more dynamic view of school-community collaboration. Additionally, exploring the role of school leadership and students’ emotional well-being as mediators or moderators could deepen our understanding of the underlying dynamics and provide more nuanced insights into the factors influencing student achievement. Furthermore, it would be valuable to expand the study’s scope to include various school types and regions to improve the generalizability of the findings, ensuring that the results are applicable across diverse educational contexts.

CONCLUSION

This study provides evidence that supports the notion that the Parent-Teacher Association and teacher quality play significant roles in improving student academic achievement in Malaysian secondary schools. PTA support has both direct and indirect effects on student performance; the indirect effect is mediated by teacher quality. Additionally, teacher quality is a strong predictor of academic success. This highlights the importance of effective instruction, teaching skills, and relationships between teachers and students. The confirmation of the teacher quality’s mediating role highlights the need for school strategies that enhance teacher development and foster collaboration with parents. These findings align with the goals of Malaysia’s Education Blueprint 2013-2025, which emphasises sound leadership, community involvement, and teacher professionalism. By employing evidence-based methods that enhance both parental engagement and teaching skills, schools can foster a more sustainable, inclusive, and high-performing educational environment for all students.

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