Parental Factors as Predictors of School Readiness among Nursery School Children in Ibadan Metropolis, Oyo State

Parental Factors as Predictors of School Readiness among Nursery School Children in Ibadan Metropolis, Oyo State

Ogochukwu Vivian, Ogunna¹, Oluyemisi Idowu Majebi²

Department of Early Childhood & Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.90400250

Received: 29 March 2025; Revised: 04 April 2025; Accepted: 08 April 2025; Published: 08 May 2025

ABSTRACT

Readiness plays a significant role in achieving a smooth transition of the child from home to school, which is the first objective of early childhood education. The child can acquire skills necessary for learning, living, and, most importantly, adjusting to his/her new environment. Studies have focused on different factors that can determine school readiness and the extent to which parental factors predict school readiness among Nursery children cannot be overstated. Thus, this study investigated parental factors (parental involvement, educational qualification, and occupation) as predictors of school readiness among nursery children. Ecological social theory anchored the study, while a correlational survey research design was adopted. 400 respondents, which comprises nursery school children and their parents from semi-urban and urban nursery schools/communities, were purposively selected from four local governments. Three research questions were raised, and two hypotheses were tested at a 0.05 significance level. Parental Factor Instrument (PFI) and Children Readiness Rating Scale (CRRS) were used to collect data. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data collected. Findings revealed that nursery children’s school readiness is average (WA= 2.82). However, children demonstrated a high level of readiness in the physical domain (WA= 3.27). It was also revealed that parental factors are good predictors of nursery children’s school readiness. Thus, children are not ready for the cognitive, socio-emotional, and language skills. Parents should be more proactive in their children’s holistic readiness as this improves their school readiness.

Keyword: Nursery children readiness, Parental involvement, School readiness

INTRODUCTION

The early years of children’s lives are crucial in laying solid foundations for impactful learning and healthy relationships. These foundations shape children’s ability to learn, form relationships, and navigate the world. Majebi, Olowe, and Leigh (2021) describe the early years as periods with a crucial window of opportunity to inculcate in children every knowledge, skills, and values essential for living and learning. These periods cover when children build strong connections with their parents and foster strong attachments with their homes (Child Development Corporation, 2020). Children during the early years live, learn, and grow, not in isolation but as part of families and communities. They depend on others, especially their parents or other adults in their immediate environment, to help them through the processes involved in their care, development, and learning (Majebi & Odebode, 2020).

Beyond mere caretaking, parents play a pivotal role in guiding children through the development of crucial cognitive, social, emotional, and physical skills (Adewumi & Peter, 2016). These are the components of holistic development. Holistic development refers to a child’s comprehensive growth across all the development domains. All the domains are interrelated and interconnected. They are integral for a child’s effective transition from the familiar home environment to the structured school setting. The cultivation of these skills established a foundation for a seamless shift from home to school, which ultimately shaped the child’s readiness for the educational journey (Preye, 2022). A school is a place purposively designed to foster children’s holistic development. It is a designated place to host learners and prepare them for achieving meaningful teaching and learning. Schooling is one experience that most children in the world have in common, either rich or poor (Majebi & Odebode, 2020). Success in school activities during the early years highly depends on many factors, including readiness. It is believed that a child equipped with the necessary school readiness skills will likely adjust faster to the demands of schooling and excel in the school environment (Child Development Corporation, 2020).

The term school readiness, according to Blair (2017), is commonly employed to depict a child’s capabilities as they commence formal education. This intricate concept encompasses diverse dimensions that incorporate a child’s physical health and well-being, social and emotional competence, language and cognitive development, communication skills, and general knowledge (Bay & Bay, 2020). It concerns the holistic preparation of children to transition smoothly and successfully into formal schooling. It comprises the development of key skills and competencies, including laying the foundations for the rudiments of literacy and numeracy, emotional regulations, and curiosity for learning. This perspective underscores the inclusive character of readiness, acknowledging that a child’s readiness for school is rooted in various skills and competencies that collectively contribute to their holistic development (Blair, 2017).  Readiness for nursery school children denotes a child’s willingness for a seamless and successful transition into various preschool settings, whether it is a preschool, kindergarten, or an Early Learning Centre (ELC) (Child Development Corporation, 2020). According to Preye (2022), nursery school children readiness is defined as a combination of socio-emotional skills (children’s ability to communicate their needs verbally, wants, and thoughts and to be enthusiastic and curious about new activities) and cognitive/physical skills (developing language and literacy skills, as well as basic math, social, and motor skills).

In Nigeria, nursery school education is considered important for all children. This education is one of the sections of early childhood education. It is categorized under early childcare development and education. This program is designed for the care, protection, simulation, and learning promoted in children ages 0 – 4 years in a creche or nursery. The expected objectives of this level of education are well crafted in the National Policy on Education by the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013). The objectives, among others, include effecting a smooth transition from home to school, preparing the child for the primary level of education, providing adequate care, and supervising and securing children while their parents are at work.

The significance of nursery school children’s readiness holds a paramount position that exerts a profound influence on academic success (Caroline, 2012). A child ready for school has the bare minimum skills and knowledge in various domains that will enable him/her to enhance success at school (UNICEF, 2012). UNICEF (2012) delineates the dual facets of the benefits derived from school children’s readiness: intrinsic benefits and instrumental advantage. Intrinsic benefits center on the personal and developmental advantages accrued by the child, encompassing cognitive, social, and emotional growth. Furthermore, school children’s readiness helps to improve children’s growth in all areas, which include cognitive, social, and emotional, and enjoyment of learning (National Academies Press, 2015). It fosters a child’s positive peer relationships and self-esteem, mental and general knowledge, emotional stability, social competence, methods of learning communication skills, and physical and general health are all aided by readiness (Nair et al., 2023). Therefore, adequately prepared and ready for school, children are more likely to go through school without much stress adjusting to the teaching and learning process.

Physical, social-emotional, and cognitive skills are crucial for school readiness. First, the two psychomotor types are important- gross (large) and fine (small) motor skills. Gross motor skill is characterized by the commencement of walking and other locomotive skills, such as running, jumping, sitting, clapping, pulling, pushing, and climbing (Graue, 2014). At an early stage, gross motor skills are necessary to move and stabilize the body and objects in the environment. The term fine motor means small muscles in the finger, hand, and arm to manipulate, control, and use tools and materials (Graue, 2014). When a child’s fine motor skill is developed, it also positively affects other skills, such as writing, drawing, and copying letters, numbers, and shapes. This was also supported by Diamond et al. (2014) that children’s motor skills are precursors to early literacy and numeracy development. Children who lack fine motor skills may experience frustration and lack self-confidence throughout the school period (National Academic Press, 2015).

In addition, socio-emotional development, which combines social and emotional development, is crucial for school readiness (National Academic Press, 2014). These two are interlinked due to emotional development occurring within social context. A child is said to be socio-emotionally ready for school if the child can play cooperatively with peers, initiate interaction, work independently with supervision, and get along with others (NICHD, 2016). Socio-emotional development involves a child’s capacity for self-reliance, trust, and kind-heartedness, together with the capacity to improve proficiencies in communication and cognitive curiosity (Cohen, 2016). According to Cohen (2016), socio-emotional development is influenced by biology as it has to do with the temperament of a preschooler. Any abuse, poverty, and community violence are all environmental factors that can affect socio-emotional development.

Cognitive development has been identified as a cornerstone of school readiness. It involves the growth of essential mental processes like thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, memory, and language skills (Majebi & Oduolowu, 2021). These abilities prepare children to be actively involved in teaching and learning activities such as understanding concepts, following instructions, solving simple problems, paying attention, expressing thoughts, and engaging in simple conversations in the classroom. Scholars such as Caroline (2012), Cohen (2016), and Nisskaya (2018) have revealed that children’s performance during the early years has an important bearing on school success in later life. Readiness during those periods might also be a determinant factor. In response, understanding how children are best prepared to enter and succeed in school has become a priority of parents, educators, legislators, and researchers.

However, when children are not ready for school, the results can be disastrous (Karoly, Rebecca, & Cannon, 2019). Transitioning from the familiar home environment to the structured school setting becomes challenging and hindered (National Academies Press, 2015). It can cause a deficit in essential skills like cognitive, social, emotional, and language capabilities necessary for effective participation in educational settings (Fasina, 2018). Kindred (2022) notes that lack of readiness may result in children struggling to regulate their emotions, express their needs, and engage in social interactions with peers. Such challenges can be distressing, induce anxiety, and constrain a child’s capacity to establish friendships.

Additionally, children may become withdrawn due to a lack of self-reliance, challenges separating from parents, and struggles with concentration. Such tendencies can influence children’s interactions within the learning environment, impeding their development and potentially resulting in enduring adverse consequences. Consequently, addressing and mitigating this deficit in school readiness becomes imperative to ensure every child is equipped with the fundamental skills needed for a successful and fulfilling educational journey (Blair, 2017).

According to National Academies Press (2015), one-third of Nigerian children are not ready for nursery school education. It was mentioned that various factors, including socio-economic challenges families face, limited access to quality early childhood education, variations in home environments, and inadequate parental involvement, contributed to a lack of school readiness among nursery children (National Academic Press, 2015).  Specifically, studies (Cohen, 2015; Abdu-Raheem, 2015; Adewumi, 2016; Assari, 2018) have shown that parents play a significant role in building school readiness. Parents are children’s first teachers as children learn from their parents and surroundings both consciously and unconsciously. Parents lay the groundwork for their children’s social, moral, emotional, spiritual, and intellectual well-being as the instruction a child receives at home is crucial in their overall personality formation (Cohen, 2015). Chinedum (2020) avers that early home experiences impact a child’s ability to study and live a healthy life. As a result, children must have access to quality medical care, stable and safe housing, an adequate supply of nutritious food, strong relationships with mature or adult caregivers, good parenting, and high-quality learning opportunities (Coelho, Grisi, Brentani & Ferrer, 2023). It is believed that higher cognitive and social abilities are acquired by children whose parents provide them with higher-quality early education and care (Anderson, 2009; Adewumi, 2016). The support system and the quality of communication between parents and children also influence a child’s achievement in school.

Scholars such as Kernan (2014), Anthony (2019), and Bond (2023) have identified parental factors as predictors of school readiness among nursery children. Parental factors are variables linked to parents or caregivers that significantly impact children’s growth, conduct, and overall welfare (Magdelena, 2014). It was mentioned that parents’ involvement (Anderson, 2007; Bond, 2023), parents’ educational status (Assari, 2018), parents’ occupation (Shah & Hussain, 2021), and family traits (Chinedum, 2020) play significant roles in nursery children school readiness.

Assari (2018) affirms a strong correlation between children’s school readiness and their parents’ educational attainment. Parental education plays a pivotal role in shaping children’s readiness for school and subsequent academic success (Adewale, 2012). Parents with higher levels of education often provide a more enriched learning environment at home and engage in activities that stimulate cognitive development and language skills from an early age (Assari, 2018). These parents are more likely to read with their children, engage in educational conversations, and expose them to various learning materials that lay a strong foundation for academic achievement (Magdelena, 2014). Additionally, educated parents are more likely to be involved in their children’s education, attend school events, collaborate with teachers, and foster a positive attitude toward learning, contributing to children’s motivation and confidence in their academic abilities (Brentani & Ferrer, 2023). Higher-educated parents and families generally do better at preparing their young children for school because they usually have access to a greater variety of resources that support and foster the development of young children. Specifically, parental occupation plays a pivotal role in shaping the socio-economic status of families, which in turn significantly impacts children’s academic development and progress (Davis-Kean, 2005).

In addition, the level of active parental participation and involvement also boosts a child’s readiness for school (Deitchma, Newman, & Walsh, 2017). According to Kernan (2014) consideration, parental involvement means the involvement of a parent in their children’s education as a partner, not the client.). UNICEF defines it as a fundamental right and obligation for young children’s education. Parental engagement is an active participation in learning and supportive relationship to foster children’s learning at home and school. According to Kernan (2014) consideration, parental involvement means the involvement of a parent in their children’s education as a partner, not the client. Anthony (2019) states that for child readiness, teachers need to establish positive and personal relationships with each child’s family to understand better the child’s individual needs, interests, and abilities related to the family’s goals, expectations, and child-rearing practice. Respectful listening and sharing of information between parents and practitioners improve practice and support a child’s development (Bond, 2023).

Parent occupation has also been known to play a pivotal role in shaping the socio-economic status of families, which in turn significantly impacts children’s academic development and progress (Burchinal, Campbell, Byrant, Wasik, & Ramey, 2017). Parental occupation; parents’ jobs can predict children’s educational, health, occupational, and academic achievements. It is believed that parents who work and are engaged in offices and office-related work environments, especially within schools, are more likely to be involved in their wards’ educational development (Shah & Hussain, 2021). Such parents will monitor their children’s school activities, check their work, and monitor assignment completion rates.

Despite this recognition of parental factors as predictors of school readiness among nursery children, a noticeable knowledge gap exists, particularly in studies addressing the school readiness of nursery school children. Previous studies in Nigeria and abroad have predominantly explored various variables such as parental influences, parental perception, and parental attitude as factors influencing the school readiness of nursery school pupils, with little attention given to parental educational qualification, occupation, and involvement (David-Kean & Sexton, 2009; Cohen, 2015; Adewumi, 2016; Fasina, 2018). Against this backdrop, this study seeks to investigate parental factors as predictors of nursery school children’s readiness, explicitly focusing on parental educational status, parental involvement, and parental occupation. Ecological System Theory, proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, anchored the study. The theory highlights the interconnectedness between individuals and their environment. This theory suggests that children’s development is influenced by various environmental systems, including the microsystem (immediate environment) and macrosystem (cultural context). In the context of this study, examining parental factors within the ecological systems framework allows for a comprehensive understanding of how factors such as parental involvement, occupation, and education interact to impact nursery children’s school readiness. It acknowledges the multi-dimensional nature of children’s development and the importance of considering the broader ecological context in which they are situated.

Research questions

Three research questions were raised to guide the conduct of this study:

1. What is the level of nursery children school readiness in in the cognitive, socioemotional, and physical readiness in Ibadan, Oyo state?
2. What is the composite contribution of parental factors (parental involvement, occupation and educational qualifications) on nursery children school readiness?
3. What is the relative contribution of parental factors (parental involvement, occupation and educational qualifications) on nursery children school readiness?

Hypotheses

Two hypotheses were used in this study at 0.05 level of significant:

1. There is no significant difference between male and female children in their school readiness
2. Parents’ occupation does not significantly influence their involvement in the education of their children

METHODOLOGY

The study utilized a correlational survey research design to explore the educational landscape of Ibadan Metropolis. This type of design seeks to establish a relationship between two or more variables. A total of 400 respondents, consists both parents and children, were purposively selected from 10 urban schools and 10 semi-urban schools, respectively, from four local governments within the Ibadan Metropolis. This decision was made because the study focused specifically on children and their parents in nursery classes, limiting the pool of eligible participants. Two research instruments (parental factor instrument and children readiness rating scale) were employed to collect data for the study. The schools selected were visited to inform the school heads about the research’s essence, connect with the teachers in each class, and reach out to the parents of the children selected. Teachers were enlightened on how to fill out the questionnaire meant for them. They were also appealed to assist in distributing and collecting questionnaires from parents, which they did. Descriptive statistics of frequency count, percentage, mean, and standard deviation were used to analyze the data collected on the participants’ demographic information using the SPSS data package. Inferential statistics of Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC), Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and T-test were used to analyze research questions. The chosen methodology comprehensively examined the research problem while maintaining data accuracy and validity.

FINDINGS

Analysis of the research questions

Research question 1: What is the level of nursery children school readiness in Ibadan Oyo State?

Table 1: Level of nursery children school readiness

Decision Value: Low (1.00 – 2.4); Average (2.5 – 2.9); High (3.0-4.0)

Table 1 shows that the level of nursery children school readiness is average (WA= 2.75). The table further shows that physical readiness of nursey school children is high, child can jump five times non stop (85); demonstrate good health habit (washing their hands) (56), trace  numbers (49);  draw simple object (02);  cognitive readiness is average, children can combine letter to form two letter words (80);  identify colours (93); emotional and social readiness is high, play with peers (3.18);  follow simple class instructions such as clap your hands two times(3.06); and language readiness is also average, they can ask questions to seek information (2.79); they can speak simple sentence such as I want to play (2.69);. This implies that the nursery school children in Ibadan metropolis show minimal readiness (average) in terms of physical, and social-emotional than in cognitive and language skills.

Research question 2: What is the composite contribution of parental factors (parental involvement, occupation and educational qualifications) on nursery children school readiness?

Table 2: Composite contribution of parental factors on nursery children school readiness

Table 2 shows the joint contribution of parental factors (Educational qualifications, Occupation, Parental involvement) on nursery children school readiness. The model summary reveals independent variables (Educational qualifications, occupation, parental involvement) when combined, have positive relationship with children’s school readiness (R = 0.126). This indicatees that parental factors are good predictors of nursery children school readiness. Also, the coefficient of determination, indicates that the 4 independent variables jointly accounted for about 1.6% of the total variance in the dependent variable (R² x 100 = 1.6%). This implies that the remaining 98.4% of the variance in the dependent variable is due to other factors not examined in this study. More so, the F-ratio in the ANOVA result reveals the fact that the joint contribution that the Educational qualifications, Occupation, Parental involvement have on the dependent variable is not statistically significant (F_{(3, 199)} = 1.046; p>0.05).

Research question 3: What is the relative contribution of parental factors (parental involvement, occupation and educational qualifications) on nursery children school readiness?

Table 3 showing the relative contribution of parental factors (parental involvement, occupation and educational qualifications) on nursery children school readiness

Table 3 shows that parental involvement (β = 0.008; t = 0.112; p> 0.05), occupation (β = -0.038; t = -0.536; p>0.05) and educational qualification (β = 0.120; t = 1.65; p> 0.05) does not relatively predict on the dependent variable (nursery children school readiness).

Testing the null hypotheses

H₀₁: There is no significant difference between male and female children in their school readiness

Table 4:  Showing t-test analysis of the difference between male and female children in their school readiness

Table 4 shows that there is a significant difference between male and female children in their school readiness (t = 2.81; df = 198; P< 0.05). Therefore, hypotheses 1 was rejected. The table further reveals that male children had a higher school readiness (56.13) than female children (53.52).

H₀₂: Parents Occupation does not significantly influence their involvement in the education of their children

Table 5: Summary of analysis of variance showing the influence of parental occupation on their parental involvement

Table 5 shows that parents’ occupation does not significantly influence their involvement in the education of their children (F_7,199 = 0.802; P>0.05). Hypothesis 2 is therefore not rejected.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

The findings of this study reveal significant insights into the educational challenges faced within the Ibadan Metropolis. When compared to similar urban studies, the results align with existing literature highlighting the complexities of providing quality education in densely populated areas. However, the unique socio-economic dynamics of Ibadan also present distinctive challenges, such as resource allocation and access to educational facilities. While the results are consistent with previous studies in urban education, the localized factors observed underscore the need for context-specific interventions. By situating these findings within the broader framework of urban education, the study contributes to a deeper understanding of how local realities shape educational outcomes.

Level of nursery school children readiness

The results of this study revealed that nursery children exhibited an average level of school readiness overall. The nursery children demonstrated high physical readiness, especially in healthy habits and jumping. However, they exhibited a lower mean in coloring with crayons. This indicated they were unprepared for fine motor control and hand-eye coordination activities. Also, children demonstrated an average level of readiness in the cognitive domain. Activities such as combining letters into words and identifying colors had average mean scores, while simple three-letter words had lower mean scores. These suggested gaps in children’s readiness in early numeracy and literacy.  Similarly, children exhibited moderate socio-emotional readiness, especially in playing with peers and following simple instructions. However, they lack the skill to share play materials with others. Finally, the finding revealed that the nursery children recorded the lowest in the language domain. They cannot retell stories and construct simple narratives. They have weaknesses in verbal memory and sequencing skills. The result also reflects challenges in reading simple words and speaking in sentences. These findings support Kolo et al. (2009) which found that some children fell below 50% proficiency in various domains, including physical traits (48.4%), emotional disposition (43.9%), social skills (44%), self-help (34.9%), cognitive abilities (45%), academic activities (37.3%), language skills (46.9%), and the use of learning materials (33.77%) in some selected schools in Nigeria. These findings also align with Mazjub and Abdul Rashid’s (2012) study on school readiness among preschool children. They found that overall, the children showed a medium level of readiness to enter primary one. The result also showed that children scored the highest in moral readiness and lowest in socioemotional readiness.

However, the results of this study are not in line with Bay and Bay (2020), who conducted a study on determining children’s primary school readiness levels. The research revealed that primary school readiness levels were significantly higher, similar to Nisskaya’s (2018) study on school readiness outcomes of different preschool educational approaches. The study proved that most children achieve a high level of cognitive readiness, can interact with peers successfully, and can control aggression; however, they also have difficulties with cooperative relations with their teacher and expressing their opinions.

Composite contribution of parental factors (parental involvement, occupation and educational qualifications) on nursery children school readiness.

The result of this study enumerated that there is no joint contribution of parental factors (educational qualification, occupation, parental involvement) on nursery children’s school readiness. This could be because most of the parents who participated were highly educated. This factor is likely to determine the rate at which they get involved in preparing their children for school. This aligns with Bond’s (2023) study on parent involvement, school readiness, and socioeconomic status. The study found no significant evidence that parent involvement increases school readiness, and it also found limited support for the hypothesis that socioeconomic status connects to higher school readiness in terms of some income and parent education measures. Relative contribution of parental factors (parental involvement, occupation and educational qualifications) on nursery children school readiness

This study found that parental involvement, occupation, and educational qualification do not significantly predict nursery children’s school readiness. This finding is in tandem with that of Magdelena (2014), whose study on the effects of parental influences on the school readiness of the child demonstrated that parental style and parents’ improvement are more powerful predictors as compared to family characteristics (structure, size, educational level). The parental style manifests through the parents’ degree of involvement in the readiness of preschool children.

A study not in alignment with this study’s findings was carried out by Ndijuye (2022), who studied school readiness and pre-primary learning experiences of children of refugee backgrounds in Tanzania: the mediating role of family socio-economic status. Parental education, family assets, parental occupation, and involvement were strongly related to children’s preparedness for school. However, while children of naturalized groups were from relatively low-income families, their school preparedness was comparable to that of children from higher SES families.

Difference between male and female children in their school readiness

This study shows a significant difference between male and female school readiness. The findings further revealed that male children had a higher school readiness than female children. This does not align with Joshi et al., (2019) study on developmental readiness of private school children: a study of gender differences. The overall result of developmental readiness indicates that both girls and boys were nearly equally prepared for formal schooling. However, the detailed examination of gender differences revealed non-significant results across most domains, except for cognitive and gross motor skills. In these aspects, girls demonstrated significantly superior cognitive abilities, while boys outperformed in gross motor skills. Similarly, Cooper’s (2023) study on gender differences in parents’ multidimensional readiness beliefs, parent involvement, and child kindergarten readiness skills found that females outperformed males on readiness, which was driven by the female advantage in physical development.

Influence of parental occupation on parental involvement

The result of this study enumerated that parent’s occupation does not significantly influence their involvement in their children’s education. This finding is not in tandem with Guyo, Mwirichia, and Kibaara’s (2022) study on parental occupation and parental involvement in education among public day secondary schools in Moyale sub-county, Marsabit County, Kenya. The findings indicated that parental occupation had a positive and significant relationship with parental involvement in education. The study concluded that parental occupation contributed significantly to parental involvement in education.  Similarly, Atolade, Oparinde, and Umaru studied parents’ occupational backgrounds and student performance in public secondary schools in the Osogbo metropolis, Osun state, Nigeria. The findings revealed a significant relationship between parents’ occupational background and students’ academic performance in the Osogbo metropolis.

CONCLUSION

Examining the impact of parental factors on nursery school children’s readiness showed an intricate relationship between the two variables.  The findings revealed that children demonstrated a high level of readiness in the area of the physical domain. The emotional and social revealed a moderate level of readiness, while the cognitive and language domains presented the lowest level of readiness. Findings further reveal that parental factors, including educational qualification, occupation, and involvement, are good predictors of nursery children’s school readiness. Male children had a higher school readiness than female children.

RECOMMENDATIONS

In light of the findings from this study, schools, and educational authorities need to introduce programs aimed at parents to improve their understanding of their vital role in preparing nursery children for school. These programs should offer practical strategies to support children’s cognitive, socio-emotional, and physical development. Additionally, early childhood educators should create initiatives encouraging parents from various occupational backgrounds to participate actively in their children’s education. Such initiatives could involve flexible scheduling for participation in activities or workshops that consider different work commitments. Local government authorities should also formulate policies that address the specific challenges faced in urban education, particularly concerning resource allocation and infrastructure development. Building stronger collaborations between schools, local communities, and stakeholders can enhance student support and improve educational access. Furthermore, investing in professional development for teachers to equip them better to manage diverse urban classrooms will improve learning outcomes. Comparative studies involving other urban centers in Nigeria should also be conducted to validate and broaden the insights gained from this research, offering a more comprehensive perspective and aiding in generalizing the conclusions derived from the Ibadan context.

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