Parental Involvement in Students’ Academic Performance: A Basis for Collaborative Training Program

Parental Involvement in Students’ Academic Performance: A Basis for Collaborative Training Program

Leah S. Baron

Graduate School Program, School of Education, Central Philippine Adventist College Murcia, Negros Occidental, Philippines

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.903SEDU0266

Received: 05 May 2025; Accepted: 09 May 2025; Published: 10 June 2025

ABSTRACT

This study explores the correlation of parental involvement on the academic engagement and performance of Grade 11 students in Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) academies within the Western Visayas region. Using a descriptive-correlational survey approach, the research examines the relationship between various aspects of parental involvement such as support with homework, school event participation, and parent-teacher meeting attendance and students’ academic outcomes. It considers how factors like parental gender, profession, student demographics, and educational background influence these dynamics. Data collection was conducted through a self-developed questionnaire and verified academic records, with statistical analysis using Pearson correlation, t-tests, ANOVA, and moderation analysis. Findings reveal a “moderately high” level of parental involvement, particularly among non-SDA parents, fathers, and professional parents, with financial support (e.g., for school supplies) rated highest. Academic performance showed an outstanding mean GPA of 90.38, with top scores observed among students from SDA Junior High Schools and female students. Results indicate that female students benefit more from parental involvement, and socioeconomic status, educational background, and school environment significantly shape both engagement levels and academic success. The study highlights the importance of gender-sensitive and inclusive strategies to enhance parental involvement, particularly for male students and students from non-professional backgrounds. It proposes collaborative training programs to foster parent-school partnerships, aligning with SDA educational principles to support holistic student development. Recommendations encourage deeper investigation into the impact of socioeconomic and community factors on academic outcomes in faith-based schools.

INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

Parental involvement has long been recognized as a critical factor in fostering students’ academic success. Over the past several decades, the issue of parental engagement has garnered significant attention from educational researchers, with a growing body of evidence indicating that active parental participation in their children’s education is strongly correlated with improved academic outcomes (Gutman & Akerman, 2020; Matejevic, Jovanovic, & Jovanovic, 2020; Peters, Seed, Goldstein, & Coleman, 2021; Nierva, 2021; Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020).

Studies have consistently demonstrated that students with involved parents tend to achieve higher grades, score better on standardized tests, and have increased participation in advanced academic programs (Gutman & Akerman, 2020; Matejevic, Jovanovic, & Jovanovic, 2020). Furthermore, these students are more likely to attend school regularly, exhibit better social behaviors, and effectively adapt to the demands of school life (Peters, Seed, Goldstein, & Coleman, 2021). These findings suggest that parental involvement extends beyond academic achievement, influencing students’ overall development and well-being.

In the Philippine context, particularly within the Western Visayas region, similar trends have been observed, emphasizing the importance of parental engagement in promoting scholastic success. Numerous studies indicate that parental involvement is positively associated with improved academic outcomes for Filipino students (Nierva, 2021; Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020). Pinantoan (2021), Olsen (2020), and Sapungan (2014) have further corroborated these findings, emphasizing the critical role that parental support plays in students’ holistic development. Despite the well-documented impact of parental involvement on academic achievement, there remains a gap in the available data concerning the relationship between parental engagement and the academic performance of grade 11 students in Adventist academies across the Western Visayas region. This gap is particularly significant in light of the recent return to face-to-face classes following the disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, which necessitated a shift to a “new normal” in educational practices.

In response to this gap, the current study aims to explore and assess the levels of parental involvement and its relationship to the academic engagement of grade 11 learners in Adventist academies in the Western Visayas region. By examining how parental participation influences students’ academic performance in the context of post-pandemic education, this research seeks to contribute valuable insights that can inform the development of targeted action plans. These plans will aim to sustain or enhance parental involvement, fostering stronger collaboration between Adventist academies, parents, and local stakeholders in order to improve student outcomes and better align with the evolving educational landscape in the new normal.

Theoretical Framework of the Study

This study draws on several key theories related to parenting, communication, and motivation, which provide a foundation for understanding the relationship between parental involvement and student academic engagement.

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (Vygotsky, 2020) features the importance of cultural and social contexts in the development of a child’s cognitive and interpersonal skills. According to Vygotsky, the parental relationship plays a pivotal role in advancing a child’s social and intellectual development. The concept of the “zone of proximal development” (ZPD) is central to this theory, as it highlights how children can achieve higher levels of cognitive development with the support of a more knowledgeable guide, typically a parent. In this framework, children who experience supportive, cooperative, and nurturing parenting styles are more likely to develop strong cognitive abilities and intrinsic motivation to learn (Perry & Vygotsky, 2020). This support is not limited to basic skills like writing or problem-solving but extends to moral reasoning and ethical decision-making (Tudge et al., 2021).

Moreover, from the perspective of communication, the study is grounded in Knapp’s Relationship Development Model, which offers insights into how relationships evolve over time (Knapp & Vangelisti, 2020). The model categorizes relationship progression into stages, providing a framework for understanding how parent-child interactions evolve and change, both positively and negatively. These stages, which include initiation, intensifying, and bonding, help explain the dynamic nature of parent-child relationships. Knapp’s model also includes the concept of relationship deterioration, which highlights how certain behaviors or lack of communication can lead to a weakening of the relationship (Tannen, 2021). This model is particularly useful in understanding the factors that influence parental involvement in the educational process and the ways in which communication patterns affect academic engagement.

Additionally, the study integrates the Volunteer Motivation Model, which highlights the diverse motivations behind volunteering and parental involvement (Thoits & Hewitt, 2020). This model suggests that individuals are motivated by a range of factors, including the desire to develop new skills, improve self-esteem, prepare for future careers, express personal values, and contribute to their community. In the context of parental involvement, this theory proposes that parents may become engaged in their children’s education for various reasons, such as a sense of personal fulfillment, commitment to their children’s well-being, or a desire to shape their child’s future (Stebbins, 2020). Understanding these motivations can help schools create programs that resonate with the personal values of parents, ultimately fostering greater involvement in academic activities.

Lastly, this study also draws on the Rational Expectations Theory, which suggests that individuals act based on their rational beliefs about future outcomes (Muth, 2021). According to this theory, parents will make decisions about investing in their child’s education and development based on their expectations of future benefits, such as improved academic success or better life opportunities for their children. By aligning their actions with these expectations, parents contribute to shaping their children’s future outcomes, which, in turn, reinforces the cycle of academic engagement and achievement (Kuroda & Shimizu, 2021).

Conceptual Framework of the Study

This study employs a logical model comprising a quasi-independent variable, a quasi-dependent variable, and the implications model. The quasi-independent variable, often referred to as the X variable, cause, or stimulus, influences the dependent variable, also known as the Y variable, effect, or response. Furthermore, the implications model identifies the likely outcomes or consequences resulting from the relationship between these variables.

The quasi-independent variable in this study encompasses the demographic profile characteristics of the student respondents, which include sex, religious affiliation, and junior high school (JHS) education. Sex, categorized as male or female, refers to the gender identity of the student. Religious affiliation pertains to a formal connection to a specific religion or denomination, and is classified as Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) or non-SDA. JHS education pertains to the type of school the student attended for grades 7 to 10 and is grouped into four categories: SDA School (same or different), non-SDA private school, and public school. Additionally, the parental profile characteristic is examined through the parental role, classified into three categories: biological mother, biological father, and parent or legal guardian.

The quasi-dependent variables in this study focus on two key aspects: parental involvement in school activities and the academic engagement levels of learners. Parental involvement is conceptualized through Epstein’s framework (Epstein, 2020), which identifies several dimensions, including parenting, communicating, volunteering, and financing. These dimensions are further examined through the lens of Rosenberg’s (1965) work, as cited by Desforges and Abouchaar (2003), who argue that parental involvement in these areas significantly contributes to the academic performance of children. The study will assess whether parents fulfill their responsibilities effectively in the eyes of different respondents and examine how these dimensions influence the student’s academic engagement and overall success.

Figure 1: Research Paradigm

Statement of the Problem

This study delves on parents’ involvement as correlate to students’ academic engagement among grade 11 learners in SDA academies within Western Visayas territory. Specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions:

1. What is the level of parental involvement:
   1. as perceived by parents,
   2. as perceived by students,
   3. according to sex of parents and students,
   4. according religious affiliation of parents and students,
   5. according to parents’ educational attainment,
   6. according to students source of JHS education, and
   7. when taken as a whole?
2. What are the level of students’ academic performance when classified according to:
   1. sex of parents,
   2. sex of students,
   3. religious affiliation of parents,
   4. religious affiliation of students,
   5. educational attainment of parents
   6. source of JHS education, and
   7. as a whole?
3. Are there significant differences on the level of parents’ involvement when classified according to:
   1. sex of parents,
   2. sex of students,
   3. religious affiliation of parents,
   4. religious affiliation of students,
   5. educational attainment of parents
   6. source of JHS education?
4. Are there significant differences on the level of students’ academic performance when classified according to:
   1. sex of parents,
   2. sex of students,
   3. religious affiliation of parents,
   4. religious affiliation of students,
   5. educational attainment of parents
   6. source of JHS education?
5. Is there a significant relationship between parents’ involvement (as perceived by parents, as perceived by students, when combined) in school activities and academic performance of students?
6. Is there a significant difference in the relationship between parents involvement in school activities and academic performance of students when moderated by the following:
   1. sex of parents,
   2. sex of students,
   3. religious affiliation of parents,
   4. religious affiliation of students,
   5. educational attainment of parents
   6. source of JHS education?
7. What training program can be proposed regarding home-school collaboration to enhance student performance?

Hypotheses

The following hypotheses are formulated to provide the direction of the study:

1. There are no significant differences on the level of parents’ involvement in school activities when classified according to sex of parents, sex of students, religious affiliation of parents, religious affiliation of students, educational attainment of parents, and source of JHS education.
2. There are no significant differences in the degrees of students’ academic engagement when classified according to sex of parents, sex of students, religious affiliation of parents, religious affiliation of students, educational attainment of parents, and source of JHS education.
3. There is no significant relationship between the level of parents’ involvement in school activities and the students’ degrees of academic engagements.
4. Sex of parents, sex of students, religious affiliation of parents, religious affiliation of students, educational attainment of parents, and source of JHS education do not significantly moderate the influence of parental involvement on academic performances.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to explore the level of parental involvement in the academic engagement of Grade 11 students in Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) academies in the Western Visayas region. Specifically, it aims to assess how different factors such as the gender of parents and students, religious affiliation, educational attainment of parents, and the source of Junior High School education impact both the perceived level of parental involvement and the academic engagement of students. The study seeks to provide insights into how these factors may influence students’ academic outcomes in the post-pandemic educational setting, particularly within Adventist schools.

Additionally, this research aims to investigate the relationship between parental involvement and students’ academic performance, focusing on how parents’ active participation in school-related activities can contribute to the academic success and overall development of their children. By identifying significant trends and differences based on demographic factors, the study will provide a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of home-school collaboration in enhancing student engagement and learning outcomes.

Another key purpose of this study is to examine whether there are significant differences in parental involvement and academic performance across various groups, such as those differentiated by the gender or religious affiliation of both parents and students, as well as the educational background of parents. This analysis will help clarify whether specific demographic variables play a critical role in influencing the level of involvement and the academic engagement of students in SDA academies.

Lastly, the study aims to develop a collaborative training program designed to strengthen the partnership between parents, students, and schools. By focusing on effective communication strategies and practical approaches to increasing parental engagement, this program will serve as a guide for improving student outcomes and fostering a supportive learning environment in Adventist schools across the region. The research is intended to inform educational leaders, parents, and teachers on how to optimize their efforts in supporting student success. Additionally, the areas or dimensions of this study are parenting, communicating, volunteering, and financing.

Significance of the Study

The results of this research are expected to have far-reaching implications for several stakeholders in the educational community. The findings are anticipated to provide valuable insights and serve as a foundation for future interventions, action plans, and training programs aimed at improving parental involvement in the academic success of students. This study will benefit the following groups:

Student Researchers

The findings from this study may inform the development of strategies, programs, and action plans to enhance parental involvement in the academic activities of students within the SDA academies in the region. This research could also lead to further exploration of effective approaches for engaging parents in their children’s education.

Learners

The study may raise students’ awareness of how parental involvement can impact their academic engagement and performance. Additionally, it may encourage students to actively involve their parents in school-related activities, both curricular and extracurricular, which will foster a positive learning environment and increase motivation.

Parents

The study may encourage parents to take a more active role in supporting their children’s academic endeavors. By highlighting the correlation between parental involvement and academic success, this research may empower parents to better understand their influence on their child’s education and motivate them to engage more in the learning process. The findings could also serve as a basis for the development of collaborative training programs aimed at enhancing parents’ involvement in their children’s academic life.

Teachers

For educators, the results may provide valuable insights that can guide the development of strategies and action plans designed to increase and sustain parental involvement. These strategies may be used to promote student engagement, academic success, and retention, particularly in SDA senior high schools in Western Visayas.

Guidance Coordinators

This study may provide guidance coordinators with data that can be used to develop and improve parent-focused guidance and counselling programs. By engaging parents in the process of student development, these coordinators can work toward more effective interventions that support students’ academic and personal growth.

Principals

The findings may help school administrators better understand the levels and nature of parental involvement within their school communities. This data can be used to reassess existing school policies and support the design of action plans that promote greater parental engagement. The research will also provide a basis for creating in-reach and outreach programs that strengthen home-school collaboration.

Future Researchers

The findings of this study may serve as a comprehensive source of information for future researchers interested in exploring the relationship between parental involvement and student academic performance. The study’s findings may also guide the design of future research on related topics, such as the impact of parental education, socioeconomic factors, or the role of religious affiliation on academic engagement in various educational settings.

Definition of Terms

In order to facilitate better understanding on part of the readers, important terms in the study are defined conceptually and/or operationally.

Academic engagement refers to the degree of students’ involvement in learning activities, including attending classes, participating in class discussions, completing assignments, and seeking additional academic challenges (Peters et al., 2021). It reflects a student’s enthusiasm for learning and commitment to academic success, and it can be influenced by multiple factors such as teacher-student interactions, classroom environment, and parental involvement (Gutman & Akerman, 2020).

In this study, academic engagement is assessed through student self-report and teacher evaluations of their participation in school activities. It includes behaviors such as attending classes regularly, participating in classroom discussions, completing assignments on time, and engaging in extracurricular activities. This variable will be measured alongside academic performance to analyze how both factors interrelate and how they are influenced by parental involvement.

Academic performance refers to the outcome of education or the extent to which a student, teacher, or institution has achieved the educational goals (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). Academic performance is typically measured through grades, standardized test scores, and overall achievements in school activities. It reflects a student’s ability to meet educational expectations and demonstrate acquired knowledge or skills. Researchers and educators often use this term to evaluate the success of both students and educational institutions in fulfilling curriculum requirements and learning objectives (Peters, Seed, Goldstein, & Coleman, 2021).

In the context of this study, academic performance refers specifically to the general average grade achieved by the student respondents during the first and second grading periods of the school year 2022-2023 in the participating SDA academies. The grading system used in the study follows the zero-based method, where the highest possible score is 100, and the lowest passing grade is 75. Academic performance is quantified based on these grading periods, providing an objective measurement of the students’ scholastic achievements in relation to parental involvement.

Communicating is defined as a two-way process involving the exchange and sharing of meaning between participants to reach mutual understanding (BusinessDictionary.com, 2016). It involves not just the transmission of information but also the creation of meaning through interaction, feedback, and interpretation. Effective communication is essential for building relationships, ensuring clarity, and fostering collaboration in various settings, including family and education (Knapp & Vangelisti, 2020).

For the purpose of this study, communicating refers to the second dimension of Epstein’s six-dimensional model of parental involvement. It pertains to the ways in which parents interact with educators, school staff, and other stakeholders regarding school programs and the academic progress of students. This type of communication is measured using five specific questions out of a 20-item parental involvement questionnaire, which assesses how well parents are able to engage in school-related communication, both from home to school and vice versa.

Correlate refers to a phenomenon that accompanies another, being usually parallel to it, and is related in some way (Merriam-Webster, 2015). In statistical analysis, a correlation indicates a mutual relationship between two variables where a change in one variable is associated with a change in another. However, correlation does not necessarily imply causation. In educational research, understanding correlations helps to explore how different factors are interconnected (Nierva, 2021; Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020).

In the context of this study, correlate refers to the relationship between parental involvement and students’ academic performance. The study tests the degree and nature of the relationship between these two variables using Pearson’s r (Spearman’s rho – as alternative) statistical techniques. This analysis aims to determine if and how parental involvement influences academic engagement and performance among the grade 11 students in SDA academies in Western Visayas.

Learners generally refers to individuals engaged in the process of acquiring knowledge and skills, usually within the formal educational system (Dictionary.com, 2015). This term is commonly used to describe students from primary through higher education levels. Learners are individuals actively involved in the process of education, whether it is in a traditional classroom setting or through alternative learning methods. The term emphasizes the active role of students in their educational journey.

In this study, learners specifically refers to the grade 11 students enrolled in SDA academies within the Western Visayas region during the 2022-2023 academic year. These learners serve as the primary respondents for this research, providing data on their academic performance and their perceptions of parental involvement in their education. The study examines the impact of parental engagement on their academic outcomes.

Parental educational attainment refers to the highest level of education achieved by the parents of a student (Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020). It is often used as a socioeconomic indicator that correlates with various aspects of student performance, including motivation, aspirations, and academic outcomes. Studies show that parents with higher levels of education tend to be more involved in their children’s education and may provide a richer learning environment at home.

In this study, parental educational attainment is categorized based on the highest education level completed by the parent respondents, ranging from elementary school to post-graduate education. This variable is examined to understand how the educational background of parents influences their involvement in their children’s academic activities and how this, in turn, affects student performance and engagement.

Parental involvement is the active participation of parents in various aspects of their children’s education, ranging from supporting academic work to engaging in extracurricular activities (Milwaukee Public Schools, n.d.). It includes behaviors such as volunteering at school events, attending parent-teacher conferences, and participating in decision-making processes regarding the child’s education. Parental involvement has been shown to contribute significantly to student success, both academically and socially (Epstein, 2020).

In this study, parental involvement is assessed through the lens of Epstein’s six dimensions of parental involvement, which include parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision-making, and collaborating with the community. These dimensions are measured using a 20-item parental involvement questionnaire that gathers data on how parents perceive their own level of involvement in school activities, as well as how students perceive their parents’ involvement. The operational definition of parental involvement is central to understanding how it correlates with students’ academic engagement.

Parenting refers to the process of caring for, guiding, and nurturing children until they are able to independently care for themselves (Merriam-Webster, 2015). It encompasses a wide range of responsibilities, including emotional support, moral guidance, and the provision of resources necessary for a child’s physical and intellectual development. Effective parenting is a crucial determinant in shaping children’s behavior, academic attitudes, and overall development (Tudge et al., 2021).

In this study, parenting refers to the way in which parents provide support for their children’s academic success and personal development at home. This includes understanding child and adolescent development, setting up appropriate learning environments, and supporting school-related activities. The parenting dimension of Epstein’s model is measured by assessing how parents manage family life to support their children’s education, based on five specific questions from the parental involvement questionnaire.

Sex refers to the biological and physiological differences between females and males, which include reproductive anatomy, chromosomes, and hormones (World Health Organization, 2018). These characteristics distinguish individuals based on biological factors and are often used in sociological and psychological studies to analyze behaviors, roles, and experiences across genders. In many studies, sex is classified as either male or female, though other classifications may be included in more inclusive frameworks.

In the context of this study, sex refers to the biological sex of the student respondents and their parents. The gender classification (male or female) is considered in analyzing how these variables might influence parental involvement in school activities and students’ academic engagement. The inclusion of sex allows for the exploration of any potential differences in parental engagement patterns or academic outcomes between male and female students, as well as male and female parents.

Volunteering is defined as the act of offering one’s time and services to help others without expecting financial compensation. It is often seen as an altruistic activity that benefits others and the community. Volunteering can take many forms, such as helping at events, assisting in classrooms, or participating in school committees. Studies show that volunteering can foster a sense of community, increase social connections, and contribute positively to educational settings (Thoits & Hewitt, 2020).

In this study, volunteering refers to Epstein’s third dimension of parental involvement, where parents actively contribute their time and energy to school-related activities such as assisting with events, helping in classrooms, or attending school programs. This dimension is specifically measured using five questions from the parental involvement questionnaire that assess how often and in what capacity parents participate as volunteers in the educational environment, either at school or in extracurricular activities.

Financing refers to the financial support that parents provide to enhance their child’s educational experience and academic success. This includes covering expenses related to school fees, educational materials, extracurricular activities, tutoring, technology, and other resources that directly or indirectly impact a student’s ability to learn and perform well in school.

In this study, parental financing in education is considered crucial because it enables students to access resources that can enhance their academic outcomes. Providing financial support for a quiet study space, school supplies, internet access, or additional academic assistance allows parents to positively influence their child’s academic performance by helping to overcome potential barriers to learning.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In order to provide light regarding topics included in this study, this section is completed. Sub-topics are arranged and grouped accordingly for the convenience of the readers.

The Review

Parental involvement has long been regarded as a key factor influencing students’ academic engagement and overall performance. With growing interest in the role of home-school collaboration, researchers have explored various dimensions of parental engagement, such as participation in school activities, communication with teachers, and involvement in academic tasks (Eccles & Harold, 2022; Hill & Tyson, 2020).

This chapter reviews relevant literature to examine the impact of parental involvement on student academic engagement, particularly in the context of Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) academies in the Western Visayas region of the Philippines. Given the unique cultural and religious setting of SDA schools, understanding how parental engagement affects academic outcomes is crucial in the post-COVID-19 educational landscape (Jung & Zhang, 2023; Reyes, 2021). By reviewing studies that focus on the academic success of students in religiously-affiliated schools and the regional context, this chapter aims to provide a comprehensive framework for understanding the variables that contribute to the academic success of Grade 11 learners in these settings.

The primary purpose of this literature review is to explore the existing body of research on parental involvement and its impact on students’ academic engagement and performance. Parental involvement has been identified as a critical determinant of student success, especially in the formative years of education, which includes the transition from Junior High School to Senior High School (Fan & Chen, 2021; Sarmiento et al., 2022). This review aims to contextualize the role of parental involvement in SDA academies, with a specific focus on how demographic factors such as gender, religious affiliation, and educational background of parents influence the level of engagement and academic outcomes in students (Crisostomo & Hernandez, 2021). Additionally, the study will examine how parental involvement has evolved in the post-pandemic educational setting, where disruptions to traditional learning patterns may have altered the dynamics of home-school collaboration (Caldwell & Little, 2022; Eickhoff & Spector, 2023).

This review is significant as it identifies the gap in research concerning the role of parental involvement in the academic performance of Grade 11 students in SDA academies, particularly in the Western Visayas region. While there is a wealth of studies on parental involvement, much of the existing literature tends to focus on general education systems or specific demographic groups (Valerio & Martinez, 2021). The unique context of SDA schools and the challenges faced by students and parents in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic present an underexplored area that requires further investigation (Santos, 2023). By synthesizing theories and findings that relate to parental involvement in faith-based educational settings, this review contributes to the broader conversation on how home-school partnerships can be optimized in this specific educational context. Furthermore, the insights gained from this review can help educational administrators, teachers, and parents to better understand the ways in which parental engagement can positively influence students’ academic experiences and outcomes (Lara et al., 2021; Tadeo et al., 2022).

Theoretical Framework and Models

Understanding the impact of parental involvement on students’ academic engagement and performance requires a robust theoretical framework that emphasizes the ways in which this involvement influences cognitive, emotional, and social development. One of the foundational theories in this regard is Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, which underscores the crucial role of social interactions and cultural contexts in shaping a child’s cognitive abilities. Vygotsky, a Soviet psychologist, developed his Sociocultural Theory in the early 20th century, proposing that cognitive development is fundamentally a social process (Vygotsky, 2021; van Oers, 2020). He argued that children learn not in isolation but through interaction with more knowledgeable individuals, including parents, teachers, and peers. These interactions, according to Vygotsky, enable children to acquire not only factual knowledge but also the values, attitudes, and strategies necessary for academic success. Central to this theory is the idea that parents, as the primary educators within the home environment, play a vital role in setting the foundation for future learning. Therefore, parental involvement is not just about providing academic support but also fostering a learning culture at home that mirrors the broader educational environment, encouraging children to view learning as a collaborative, social, and culturally embedded process (Berk, 2020; McLeod, 2022).

A critical component of Vygotsky’s theory is the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which refers to the gap between what a child can achieve independently and what they can accomplish with the help of a more capable individual (Wood, 2023; Aubrey et al., 2020). This idea was introduced by Vygotsky to explain how learners can be guided through tasks that they cannot yet perform on their own, with the assistance of a more experienced adult or peer. In the context of parental involvement, this concept emphasizes the importance of parents in providing scaffolding, temporary support that enables students to tackle more challenging tasks. For example, when parents assist with schoolwork, offer guidance, or encourage independent problem-solving, they help students extend their abilities, thereby expanding their ZPD. This active parental involvement improves students’ cognitive skills and boosts academic engagement by helping them feel more competent and confident in their capabilities (Vygotsky, 2021; Berndt, 2020). Moreover, parents who engage in educational activities create an environment where learning is seen as a dynamic and collaborative process. This, in turn, reinforces the idea that academic success is a collective effort requiring active participation from both students and parents (Zhan & Zhang, 2023).

The social dimension of Vygotsky’s theory further highlights the role of parents in not just fostering academic achievement but also supporting the development of social and emotional skills. Vygotsky theorized that cognitive development is inseparable from social interaction and emotional engagement, asserting that learning is deeply embedded within social contexts (van Oers, 2020). As students work alongside their parents, they also acquire critical life skills such as self-regulation, time management, and effective communication. These social and emotional competencies are integral to academic engagement because they enable students to better navigate school environments, build positive relationships with teachers and peers, and engage meaningfully with the learning process (McLeod, 2022; Zhan & Zhang, 2023). Additionally, parents who actively participate in school activities, such as attending meetings or volunteering, signal to their children the importance of education and demonstrate the value of sustained effort and engagement. This involvement not only supports students’ cognitive development but also contributes to their emotional well-being, creating a holistic support system that promotes both academic success and personal growth. Thus, Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how parental involvement, through social interactions and targeted support, can have a profound and lasting impact on students’ academic outcomes (Berk, 2020; van Oers, 2020).

Knapp’s Relationship Development Model

Knapp’s Relationship Development Model offers a valuable framework for understanding the evolving nature of parental involvement in children’s academic lives. Developed by Steven Knapp in the 1970s, this model initially sought to explain the stages through which interpersonal relationships progress, but over time, it has been adapted to understand the parent-child dynamic and its influence on academic engagement. Knapp (2022) identified three primary stages – initiation, experimentation, and commitment that represent different levels of parental engagement, each contributing uniquely to the educational journey. The model highlights how parental involvement evolves from minimal and reactive to proactive and sustained, reflecting the deepening commitment of parents toward their child’s academic development (Baker et al., 2022).

In the initial “initiation” stage, parental involvement tends to be minimal and often sporadic. Parents engage occasionally in school-related activities such as attending meetings, discussing general academic progress, or providing basic support with homework. At this point, parents may not yet fully grasp the extent of their role in fostering their child’s educational development, and their involvement may be more reactive, driven by immediate requests from the school or the child’s needs (Baker et al., 2022; Epstein, 2020). This stage serves as an introduction to the parent-school relationship and often involves activities like attending school events or communicating with teachers about occasional concerns. While this stage is essential for establishing an initial connection, it typically does not involve sustained, long-term involvement that directly influences academic outcomes (Jeynes, 2021).

As the relationship progresses, parents enter the “experimentation” stage, where their engagement becomes more proactive and consistent. Parents in this stage experiment with various ways to engage with their child’s education, attending parent-teacher conferences, participating in school events, and volunteering in the classroom (Knapp, 2022; Tadeo et al., 2023). This phase marks a shift from passive involvement to active participation, with parents starting to monitor homework, set academic goals, and communicate more regularly with teachers. According to Jeynes (2021), the experimentation stage is a critical period during which parental involvement begins to have a measurable and meaningful impact on students’ academic engagement and performance. By collaborating with teachers to address academic challenges, parents solidify their role as partners in their child’s education. The more parents are involved during this phase, the greater their ability to influence their child’s academic engagement (Tadeo et al., 2023; Baker et al., 2022).

The final stage, “commitment,” represents the highest level of parental involvement. Parents in this stage are fully invested in their child’s educational journey, maintaining consistent participation in school activities and taking on leadership roles within the school community, such as serving on advisory boards or leading parent organizations. This phase of sustained, consistent involvement has been shown to have the most significant positive effect on students’ academic outcomes (Epstein, 2020; Knapp, 2022). Committed parents advocate for policies that support the learning environment and hold themselves accountable for their child’s academic success. Research indicates that this long-term engagement helps foster a sense of continuity and shared responsibility between the home and school, which in turn drives significant improvements in students’ academic performance and overall engagement (Jeynes, 2021). Through Knapp’s model, it becomes clear that sustained, committed involvement has a profound and lasting impact on students’ educational outcomes, as it cultivates an environment of collaboration and support (Tadeo et al., 2023; Baker et al., 2022).

The Volunteer Motivation Model

The Volunteer Motivation Model, first outlined by Fitzgerald et al. (2021), offers a comprehensive understanding of the various intrinsic and extrinsic factors that drive parents to become involved in their children’s education. Initially developed within the context of volunteerism and community involvement, the model has since been adapted to explore parental engagement in educational settings. According to Pusser et al. (2022), parents’ motivations for involvement can be categorized into intrinsic factors, such as personal fulfillment and emotional satisfaction from seeing their children succeed, and extrinsic factors, such as a sense of social responsibility or the desire to contribute to the community. This distinction helps clarify why some parents may prioritize direct engagement with their child’s academic progress, while others are more focused on broader community involvement or gaining social recognition from their peers. The Volunteer Motivation Model emphasizes that these motivations are not mutually exclusive; rather, parents may experience a combination of factors driving their involvement at different points in time (Fitzgerald et al., 2021; Pusser et al., 2022).

As the theory progressed, researchers began to apply the Volunteer Motivation Model to a variety of educational contexts, with particular emphasis on how cultural and social factors shape parental motivations (Hill & Tyson, 2020). For instance, in Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) schools, the religious community plays a crucial role in motivating parental engagement. Parents who are deeply involved in the church and its values are often more likely to participate in school activities because they see it as part of their religious and social responsibility. The model also highlights how motivations can shift based on individual family dynamics, such as the child’s age, academic needs, or the level of parental education. For SDA families in the Philippines, religious beliefs and communal values might influence the extent and nature of parental involvement in education, further illustrating how these extrinsic factors, such as cultural norms and social expectations, interact with intrinsic motivations to shape parents’ decisions to volunteer in their children’s schooling. By understanding the complex interplay of motivations, educators can design more effective strategies to engage families in ways that both support students’ academic success and foster a sense of community within the school (Hill & Tyson, 2020; Fitzgerald et al., 2021).

The Rational Expectations Theory

The Rational Expectations Theory, first developed by economist John F. Muth in the early 1960s, has since been applied in various fields, including education, to explain decision-making processes based on individuals’ anticipations of future outcomes (Jung & Zhang, 2023; Walsh & Carlson, 2021). The theory suggests that individuals, including parents, form expectations about future events based on all available information and rationally incorporate those expectations into their decisions. When applied to parental involvement, the theory asserts that parents are more likely to engage in their children’s education when they perceive a direct link between their involvement and future rewards. For instance, parents who believe that active participation in school activities, such as attending parent-teacher conferences or helping with homework, will lead to better academic performance and enhanced educational opportunities for their children are more likely to invest time and resources into their children’s schooling (Santos, 2023; Epstein, 2020). These expectations shape parental attitudes and behaviors, as they seek to maximize the long-term benefits for their children’s academic and life outcomes. In this way, the Rational Expectations Theory underscores the forward-looking nature of parental involvement, where actions are taken with an eye toward future academic and life success (Tadeo et al., 2022).

Over time, the Rational Expectations Theory has evolved to incorporate a broader understanding of how individuals form expectations and make decisions. In the context of education, this theory has been expanded to consider the dynamic nature of parental engagement across different educational stages. For instance, early childhood may elicit different expectations from parents than high school education, as the perceived benefits and the cost of involvement shift with the child’s age and educational needs (Jung & Zhang, 2023; Tadeo et al., 2022). During the primary and secondary school years, parents may increase their involvement as they become more attuned to their children’s academic trajectories and the importance of supporting them through pivotal educational milestones. As children progress toward higher education, parental expectations may evolve further, with parents more focused on facilitating their child’s academic success to ensure college admissions or career readiness. This dynamic progression reflects how parental involvement is often seen as an investment, with the hope that it will yield positive academic outcomes that benefit the child’s future (Jung & Zhang, 2023; Walsh & Carlson, 2021). Thus, the Rational Expectations Theory adds a temporal dimension to understanding parental engagement, emphasizing that involvement is often a strategic decision driven by anticipated future rewards.

In supposition, these theoretical models, Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, Knapp’s Relationship Development Model, the Volunteer Motivation Model, and Rational Expectations Theory, collectively offer a rich and multi-faceted perspective on parental involvement. Each theory emphasizes different aspects of how and why parents engage in their children’s education, providing complementary insights into the dynamics of this relationship. Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes the importance of social interactions and scaffolding, Knapp’s model highlights the stages of relationship development, the Volunteer Motivation Model explores the personal and social motivations for involvement, and Rational Expectations Theory focuses on the long-term benefits that guide parental decision-making. Together, these frameworks underscore that parental involvement is not a singular, static phenomenon but a complex and evolving process influenced by cognitive, social, emotional, and rational factors (Epstein, 2020; Tadeo et al., 2022). By understanding these diverse dimensions of parental involvement, educators, parents, and policymakers can better collaborate to foster academic success and overall student development.

Parental Involvement

Parental involvement in education is a multifaceted concept that encompasses a range of behaviors and practices aimed at supporting a child’s academic growth. Epstein’s (2010) framework provides a comprehensive model that identifies several key dimensions of parental involvement, which include parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, and decision-making. Parenting, the first dimension, involves creating a nurturing home environment that prioritizes academic and emotional development. This includes establishing routines, setting expectations for behavior and academic performance, and providing a supportive and structured home environment (Epstein, 2010; Hill & Tyson, 2020). Research highlights that a stable, supportive home environment is foundational to a child’s academic success, particularly in the early years (Baker et al., 2022; Nierva, 2021). In Filipino households, this often translates to ensuring that children have the necessary materials for schoolwork and providing emotional support, particularly for students in challenging educational settings.

Communicating, the second dimension, refers to the ongoing dialogue between parents and schools about the student’s academic progress and well-being. Epstein (2010) underscores the importance of communication, stating that when parents are kept informed about their children’s performance, they can take proactive measures to address academic challenges. This communication can take many forms, including parent-teacher conferences, newsletters, emails, and informal meetings. For Filipino families, however, barriers such as language differences or a lack of familiarity with formal education systems may hinder effective communication (Pusser et al., 2022; Zhan & Zhang, 2023). Yet, even in the face of such barriers, active communication between parents and teachers can foster a sense of community and shared responsibility, which ultimately enhances students’ academic engagement and performance. Studies in the Philippines suggest that when parents are regularly informed about school activities and their child’s performance, there is an increase in parental motivation to support their children academically (Gutman & Akerman, 2020; Sapungan, 2021).

The third dimension, volunteering, involves parents directly participating in school-related activities. This may include helping at school events, chaperoning field trips, or assisting with classroom activities. Volunteering fosters a strong connection between home and school, showing children that their education is important to both their parents and teachers (Epstein, 2010; Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020). In the Philippine context, parental participation in school functions such as Buwan ng Wika (National Language Month) or pagtutulungan (cooperative volunteer work) is a common way of demonstrating this involvement. Filipino parents often volunteer in school activities as a way to support their children’s school community, and this has been linked to improved student morale and academic performance (Baker et al., 2022). Studies in Filipino schools have shown that students with parents who volunteer in school activities often demonstrate higher levels of engagement, motivation, and academic achievement (McLeod, 2022).

Learning at home, as defined in Epstein’s model, encompasses the practices parents adopt to support their children’s educational tasks, such as helping with homework, encouraging reading, or discussing academic topics outside of school. This dimension has been shown to significantly influence academic performance, as it directly contributes to the development of skills and knowledge necessary for academic success (Epstein, 2010; Hill & Tyson, 2020). In Filipino households, learning at home often involves the extended family, where grandparents and other relatives are actively engaged in the learning process. Research in the Philippines shows that students whose parents are involved in homework help or provide educational resources at home tend to perform better in school (Nierva, 2021). Furthermore, with the challenges brought by online and hybrid learning in the post-pandemic era, many Filipino parents have taken on additional roles in managing their children’s learning, making this dimension of involvement more critical than ever (Pusser et al., 2022).

The final dimension, decision-making, involves parents’ active participation in shaping the educational policies and practices of the school. Epstein (2010) emphasizes that parents who engage in decision-making processes, such as serving on parent committees or participating in school governance, contribute not only to their child’s education but to the larger educational community. This level of involvement requires parents to be knowledgeable about educational practices and policies, which can sometimes be a barrier, especially in the Philippines, where access to formal education and information can be limited in rural areas (Matejevic, Jovanovic, & Jovanovic, 2020). Nonetheless, Filipino parents who are engaged in decision-making processes have been shown to foster stronger connections between the school and the community, and this contributes to better academic outcomes for students (Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020; Sapungan, 2014). Studies show that schools that involve parents in decision-making are more likely to develop policies that cater to the needs of both students and parents, resulting in improved academic performance and increased school satisfaction (Zhan & Zhang, 2023; Gutman & Akerman, 2020).

Impact on Academic Achievement

There is robust evidence supporting the positive correlation between parental involvement and higher academic performance across various educational contexts. Research has consistently shown that students whose parents are actively engaged in their education tend to outperform their peers in terms of grades, attendance, and overall academic success. A meta-analysis by Gutman and Akerman (2020) underscored this connection, revealing that parental involvement significantly contributes to students’ academic achievement, regardless of socio-economic factors.

Also, the study highlighted that when parents engage in school-related activities such as attending parent-teacher conferences or participating in school events, their children show improved academic results. This finding is particularly relevant in the Filipino context, where active parental involvement is culturally valued, and schools often rely on community-based support. Filipino parents who participate in school activities, such as pagtutulungan (cooperative volunteer work) or bayanihan (community-based activities), significantly contribute to fostering a learning-rich environment that supports student success (Nierva, 2021; Pusser et al., 2022).

The benefits of parental involvement extend beyond academic achievement to include a more holistic development of students, including social and emotional growth. Parental engagement has been shown to improve students’ school attendance, attitude toward learning, and overall motivation (Epstein, 2020; Peters et al., 2021). A study conducted in Philippine schools by Nierva (2021) indicated that students whose parents actively communicated with teachers or volunteered in school functions tended to exhibit higher levels of motivation and emotional engagement with their studies. The emotional support provided by parents, especially in the form of encouragement and positive reinforcement, fosters a sense of security and confidence in students, which, in turn, enhances their willingness to participate in school activities and pursue academic challenges. This type of support is crucial in Filipino families, where extended family networks often play a significant role in the child’s education (Berk, 2020; Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020).

Further reinforcing the impact of parental involvement, research has also shown that parents who engage in educational activities at home contribute to the development of self-regulated learners. Epstein (2020) emphasizes that when parents set high academic expectations and provide guidance at home, students are more likely to develop strong self-regulation skills. These skills include the ability to manage time effectively, stay organized, and set academic goals.

In the context of the Philippines, where the educational system has faced challenges due to the pandemic and increased reliance on digital learning platforms, parental involvement at home has become even more crucial (Pusser et al., 2022). Filipino parents who actively assist with homework or encourage academic discussions at home help cultivate students’ critical thinking and problem-solving abilities, fostering an environment that promotes independent learning and academic success (Hill & Tyson, 2020; Nierva, 2021).

Moreover, the relationship between parental involvement and students’ social development cannot be understated. Volunteering in school activities or engaging in decision-making processes within the school system promotes a sense of belonging and identity for students (Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020; Peters et al., 2021). Students whose parents are involved in decision-making, such as serving on school advisory boards or participating in school policy discussions, are more likely to feel connected to their school community. This increased sense of belonging can translate into greater academic motivation, regular school attendance, and the formation of positive social relationships. Research in Filipino schools supports this idea, suggesting that parental involvement fosters a positive school culture where students feel more supported and valued, thereby improving both academic and social outcomes (Pusser et al., 2022; Zhan & Zhang, 2023).

Lastly, parental involvement is essential in reinforcing academic values and expectations within the home and school environment. Schools that encourage active parent-school collaboration tend to have better academic outcomes, as this creates a unified approach to student development. This collaborative culture reinforces the importance of education and provides students with consistent messages from both home and school. In the Philippines, where educational values are often deeply tied to family and community traditions, this kind of collaboration is especially significant (Matejevic et al., 2020; Sapungan, 2014).

Studies in local contexts have shown that when schools and parents work together, students perform better academically and experience greater overall success. For instance, research conducted by Nierva (2021) found that when Filipino parents were more involved in school activities and decision-making, students exhibited improved academic performance and a stronger sense of academic responsibility. Therefore, parental involvement is not only an indicator of academic success but also a key factor in building a supportive and effective learning environment.

Factors Influencing Parental Involvement

Several socio-economic, educational, cultural, and gender-related factors significantly influence the level of parental involvement in education. A key factor is socio-economic status (SES), which affects parents’ ability to engage in their children’s academic life. Research has shown that parents from higher socio-economic backgrounds tend to have greater access to resources such as transportation, flexible work hours, and financial stability, which makes it easier for them to attend school meetings, volunteer in classrooms, and support their children’s education at home (Olsen, 2020; McLeod, 2022).

In contrast, parents from lower socio-economic backgrounds often face challenges such as long working hours, multiple jobs, financial instability, and a lack of educational resources, which can restrict their ability to actively participate in school-related activities (Pusser et al., 2022; Sapungan, 2014). This disparity underscores the need for schools to develop targeted strategies to support parental involvement, especially for families from underprivileged backgrounds, such as offering flexible meeting times or providing resources for at-home learning (Tadeo et al., 2023).

In the context of Filipino families, socio-economic challenges play a significant role in parental involvement. The Philippines has a large population working in informal sectors, and many families struggle with limited income, which often results in parents working multiple jobs (Matejevic, Jovanovic, & Jovanovic, 2020). These economic pressures can make it difficult for parents to dedicate time to their children’s academic needs. Studies in the Philippine context have found that lower SES is correlated with less frequent participation in school-related activities (Nierva, 2021). However, local schools have begun to recognize these barriers and are implementing initiatives that help bridge the gap, such as online meetings or community-based volunteer programs that allow parents to contribute in ways that are more compatible with their schedules and economic realities (Pusser et al., 2022). Thus, understanding socio-economic factors and providing flexible opportunities for involvement can help ensure greater parental engagement in the educational process.

Beyond socio-economic status, a parent’s educational background significantly impacts their level of involvement in their child’s education. Parents with higher educational attainment are more likely to value education and feel confident in their ability to support their children academically. They are also more likely to engage in school-related activities, such as attending parent-teacher conferences, volunteering in the classroom, and helping with homework (Pinantoan, 2021; Epstein, 2020). These parents tend to set higher academic expectations for their children and advocate for policies that support their child’s educational needs (Berk, 2020). In contrast, parents with lower levels of education may feel less confident in supporting their children’s academic needs, which can affect their involvement in school activities (Gutman & Akerman, 2020). In the Philippines, studies have shown that parents with higher educational levels are more proactive in monitoring their children’s academic progress and participating in school governance (Nierva, 2021). This highlights the need for schools to provide educational programs or workshops that empower parents, particularly those with lower levels of education, to be more confident in supporting their children’s education.

Moreover, cultural and religious values also play a critical role in shaping parental involvement in education. In religious communities, such as Seventh-day Adventist schools, parents often view their role in education through the lens of religious and moral responsibility. For instance, in the context of SDA schools in the Philippines, parents are motivated not only by the desire to see their children succeed academically but also by a belief in the spiritual significance of education (Sapungan, 2014; Tadeo et al., 2023). In these communities, education is seen as a tool for moral development and spiritual growth, leading to high levels of parental involvement in school activities. Filipino SDA parents often view their involvement in school as part of their broader religious mission to nurture their children’s faith and character development, which can lead to higher engagement in both academic and extracurricular activities (Tadeo et al., 2023). This strong sense of shared purpose between the home, school, and church helps create an educational environment that supports both academic and spiritual growth.

Additionally, cultural norms and traditions can influence the types of involvement parents pursue. In Filipino culture, the concept of bayanihan, or communal work and cooperation, is deeply ingrained, and this extends to the school setting. Parents in the Philippines, especially in rural areas, often participate in school events or collaborate with teachers to improve school facilities, demonstrating the importance of collective responsibility in education (Matejevic et al., 2020). Additionally, family-centered values in Filipino culture often mean that parents are highly motivated to ensure their children’s success, as the family’s reputation and honor are closely tied to the academic achievements of its members (McLeod, 2022). This cultural emphasis on family responsibility can drive parents to become actively involved in their children’s education, particularly in private and religious schools such as SDA academies, where the values of cooperation and community are particularly emphasized. As schools and communities understand these cultural dynamics, they can tailor their strategies to encourage even greater participation from Filipino parents.

Gender Differences in Parental Involvement

Gender differences in parental involvement have been well-documented, with research indicating that mothers are generally more involved in their children’s education than fathers. This trend is particularly evident in activities such as school communication, homework support, and attending parent-teacher conferences (Pinantoan, 2021; Olsen, 2020). Mothers are often perceived as the primary caregivers and are more likely to take on the nurturing role in their children’s academic development. This traditional gender role, where mothers assume the bulk of responsibilities related to child-rearing, extends into the educational sphere, making them more present in school-related activities (Hill & Tyson, 2020).

In many cultures, including in the Philippines, this pattern persists, as mothers are expected to be the ones who oversee their children’s homework, communicate with teachers, and provide emotional support for academic challenges (McLeod, 2022). These gendered expectations are deeply embedded in social norms, contributing to the higher level of maternal involvement in education. However, fathers also play a crucial role in their children’s academic success, though their involvement often looks different from that of mothers. Research has shown that fathers tend to engage in activities that provide structure and support, such as helping children with problem-solving tasks, managing school-related routines, and setting expectations for academic achievement (Olsen, 2020; Hill & Tyson, 2020). Fathers’ involvement in education is linked to students’ higher levels of self-esteem, greater academic motivation, and improved behavior in school (Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020). Studies indicate that when fathers are actively engaged in school activities, students tend to exhibit more positive attitudes toward learning and a stronger commitment to their academic goals (Pusser et al., 2022; McLeod, 2022). This involvement provides students with a broader support system that balances the nurturing approach of mothers with the discipline and structure often associated with fathers.

In the Filipino context, gendered expectations around parental roles are significant. Filipino fathers, while typically less involved in daily academic activities, are often seen as the primary breadwinners and decision-makers in the household. Their involvement in education may manifest in different ways, such as overseeing the family’s financial support for school needs, managing the school’s social and extracurricular activities, or setting long-term academic expectations (Matejevic et al., 2020). However, studies have found that Filipino fathers, when involved, contribute positively to their children’s academic success, particularly in reinforcing the importance of education and setting high standards for achievement (Pinantoan, 2021; Nierva, 2021). Filipino mothers, by contrast, often handle the day-to-day educational support, such as ensuring children complete homework or helping them understand lessons (Nierva, 2021). This division of labor reflects traditional gender roles but highlights the importance of both parents working collaboratively to enhance their children’s academic outcomes.

Given these gender differences, it is critical for schools to recognize the value of both maternal and paternal involvement in students’ academic lives. Research supports the idea that when both parents participate in school-related activities, students tend to perform better academically and exhibit stronger social and emotional development (Tadeo et al., 2023; Hill & Tyson, 2020). Schools in the Philippines, including Seventh-day Adventist academies, can encourage this by creating opportunities for both mothers and fathers to engage in their children’s education. Initiatives such as family-school workshops, father-focused programs, and communication strategies that appeal to both parents could help bridge the involvement gap. Such strategies would empower fathers, in particular, to take on more active roles in their children’s academic life, contributing to a more balanced and supportive environment for learning (Baker et al., 2022; Sapungan, 2014). This approach would foster a more inclusive and effective parental involvement model, benefiting students’ academic achievement and overall well-being.

Parental Involvement and Students’ Academic Performance

Parental involvement in education is a cornerstone of student success, with a growing body of research demonstrating its direct impact on academic engagement and achievement. A study by Peters, Seed, Goldstein, and Coleman (2021) emphasizes that students whose parents actively participate in school activities, such as attending parent-teacher conferences and volunteering at school events, show higher motivation, better attendance, and more positive attitudes toward school. This type of engagement fosters a sense of belonging and emotional connection between the student, the school, and the family.

In the context of the Philippines, where family ties are highly valued, parental involvement is especially crucial in encouraging students to invest in their education (Nierva, 2021; Tadeo et al., 2023). Filipino parents who take the time to attend school meetings or participate in extracurricular activities contribute to a learning environment that boosts the student’s confidence, motivation, and overall academic performance. As a result, the connection between the home and school becomes a vital support system for students, especially in the post-pandemic educational landscape where parent engagement can serve as a stabilizing force.

When parents offer emotional and cognitive support, it significantly influences a student’s academic self-efficacy, which in turn improves their academic performance. Research by Gutman and Akerman (2020) highlights how parents’ encouragement and involvement in academic tasks help students build a stronger belief in their own abilities. Filipino parents often take an active role in supporting their children’s education by providing emotional encouragement, helping with assignments, or even seeking additional tutoring when necessary (Matejevic et al., 2020; Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020). This support is not limited to simply completing homework but extends to offering guidance on how to approach difficult subjects, helping students set academic goals, and fostering a growth mind-set. For instance, in Filipino households, it is common for parents to emphasize the importance of perseverance in education, a value that aligns with both cultural and educational expectations. This nurturing approach to learning boosts a student’s self-confidence and motivation, which are key drivers of academic success.

Moreover, consistent parental involvement contributes to the development of better study habits and academic behaviors. As Gutman and Akerman (2020) note, when parents actively participate in their children’s education, whether through reviewing assignments, setting aside time for study, or engaging in discussions about school topics, students are more likely to develop disciplined study routines. This is especially relevant in the context of the Philippines, where academic achievement is highly valued, and students are often encouraged to prioritize education from a young age. Filipino parents typically play a role in shaping not just academic outcomes, but also the values that underpin learning, such as responsibility, respect for authority, and the importance of education in achieving personal and family goals (Nierva, 2021; Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020).

By engaging in their children’s education, parents convey that academic success is not only a personal achievement but also a family accomplishment, which fosters a strong sense of accountability in students. Parental involvement also acts as a safety net for students facing academic challenges, providing the support needed to overcome difficulties and stay engaged in the learning process. According to Pavalache and Tirdia (2020), parental engagement in school activities and at-home learning tasks helps students navigate academic setbacks by providing reassurance and additional resources.

In the Filipino context, where extended families often play an active role in a child’s education, this network of support becomes even more important. A study by Tadeo et al. (2023) found that students in Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) schools in the Philippines whose parents were actively involved in their education had higher levels of academic engagement and were more likely to persist through academic challenges. The emotional and cognitive support parents provide in these contexts not only improves students’ academic outcomes but also builds their resilience and determination, qualities that are essential for long-term success.

The impact of parental involvement on students’ academic engagement is indeed influenced by various demographic factors, with one of the most significant being the educational background of parents. Research has consistently shown that parents with higher levels of education tend to be more actively involved in their children’s education (Nierva, 2021). These parents are typically more comfortable navigating the educational system, engaging in meaningful conversations with teachers, and understanding how to support their children academically. In the case of Filipino families, where education is highly valued as a means of upward social mobility, parents with higher educational attainment often prioritize their children’s academic success by creating a conducive learning environment at home, such as setting aside time for studying, providing academic resources, and encouraging independent learning (Pinantoan, 2021). Conversely, parents with lower levels of education may face challenges in supporting their children’s academic growth due to limited knowledge about school expectations, fewer academic resources, or the inability to provide academic help, especially as students progress through higher education levels. This discrepancy in parental involvement based on educational background highlights the need for schools to implement inclusive strategies that address the unique needs of families from diverse educational backgrounds (Matejevic et al., 2020; Tadeo et al., 2023).

In addition to the educational background of parents, religious affiliation also plays a crucial role in shaping parental involvement in students’ academic lives. Religious communities often instill specific values that intersect with the academic and personal development of students. For instance, in Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) schools, the importance of education is not only viewed as a secular goal but is often intertwined with spiritual growth and moral development (Sapungan, 2014). Studies have shown that religious teachings can provide a strong motivation for parents to become more involved in their children’s academic life, as educational success is seen as a way to honor God and fulfill one’s potential (Tadeo et al., 2023). This belief system may lead SDA parents to place a higher value on academic achievement, fostering a greater sense of responsibility and commitment to their children’s learning. Furthermore, religious communities can create additional layers of support for students, such as offering moral and spiritual guidance, which complements the academic encouragement provided by parents. In the case of Filipino families, religious beliefs are often deeply embedded in family dynamics, making religion a powerful motivator for parental involvement in education (Tadeo et al., 2023; Sapungan, 2014). This integration of academic and spiritual values often results in a more holistic approach to parenting, where parents not only monitor academic progress but also nurture their children’s character and ethical development.

Cultural norms, particularly in the Philippines, further influence how parents engage in their children’s education. The Filipino culture places a strong emphasis on family cohesion, and educational success is seen as a collective achievement for the family rather than just the individual student. This cultural perspective can significantly enhance parental involvement, as parents see their role not just as providers but as active participants in their children’s academic journey (Pinantoan, 2021). In rural and tight-knit Filipino communities, where extended family structures are common, the involvement of grandparents, uncles, and aunts may also contribute to the overall support network for students. Research by Nierva (2021) indicates that such communities often have more frequent and intimate interactions between parents, teachers, and students, which strengthens the sense of shared responsibility for the student’s success. These family-centric values often result in greater parental commitment to attending school events, supporting extracurricular activities, and providing a strong foundation for academic achievement at home. Moreover, Filipino parents are more likely to engage in “sacrificial parenting,” where they work long hours to provide the necessary resources for their children’s education, viewing this as an investment in the child’s future (Tadeo et al., 2023). This cultural tendency to prioritize family and education in tandem reinforces the idea that parental involvement is a collective effort and can significantly contribute to students’ academic outcomes.

However, it is important to acknowledge that while religious and cultural factors positively influence parental involvement, they may also present challenges, particularly in areas where educational resources are limited. In rural or low-income communities, parents may face barriers such as long working hours, limited access to technology, or a lack of educational resources, which can hinder their ability to fully engage with their children’s education (Matejevic et al., 2020). Additionally, the pressure to conform to cultural expectations can sometimes lead to overly high expectations that may result in stress for both parents and children. In these cases, while the intention to be involved is strong, practical limitations can undermine the effectiveness of parental involvement. As such, educational interventions need to consider these cultural and socio-economic factors to develop more accessible strategies for increasing parental engagement in academic activities. In the context of SDA schools, where the integration of faith and learning is a guiding principle, addressing these barriers may require a multi-faceted approach that includes spiritual, educational, and community-based support systems (Tadeo et al., 2023; Sapungan, 2014).

Lastly, sex-based differences in parental involvement significantly influence the academic outcomes of students, and these differences are often shaped by traditional gender roles within the family structure. In many cultures, including Filipino society, mothers are generally seen as the primary caregivers and nurturers, which often leads to them taking the lead in their children’s education (Pinantoan, 2021; Nierva, 2021). Mothers are more likely to be involved in activities such as communicating with teachers, helping with homework, and providing emotional support to their children (Olsen, 2020; Tudge et al., 2021). This involvement is crucial, as it directly impacts students’ motivation, emotional well-being, and academic performance.

For example, mothers’ emotional encouragement and reinforcement can help students develop resilience and self-confidence, which are essential for academic success. In Filipino families, where close-knit family structures are common, mothers are often the first point of contact for any academic-related concerns, which strengthens the parent-child relationship and ensures that students receive the emotional and practical support they need to succeed academically (Tadeo et al., 2023; Pinantoan, 2021). However, the role of fathers in the educational development of their children should not be underestimated. Although fathers are generally less involved in day-to-day academic tasks, their involvement has been shown to have a distinct and significant impact on students’ academic outcomes. Research suggests that fathers tend to contribute more to the development of their children’s attitudes toward education, especially in terms of fostering discipline, responsibility, and motivation to succeed (Hill & Tyson, 2020; Tudge et al., 2021).

Filipino fathers, for instance, may be more involved in setting expectations and providing financial support for educational needs, but their involvement in academic activities like helping with homework tends to be less frequent compared to mothers. Despite this, studies have shown that when fathers do engage, even in less frequent ways, their involvement leads to improved academic outcomes, particularly in fostering a sense of accountability and a positive attitude toward learning (Nierva, 2021; Tadeo et al., 2023). In a study of Filipino families, it was noted that the active participation of fathers, even in non-academic areas like supporting extracurricular activities or attending school events, positively influences students’ academic behavior and their motivation to engage with schoolwork (Pinantoan, 2021). Thus, while the nature and extent of parental involvement may differ based on gender, the combined involvement of both mothers and fathers can create a more balanced and supportive environment that enhances academic outcomes for students.

The Role of Parental Involvement in the Philippine Context

In the Philippines, parental involvement in education is deeply rooted in the values of family and community. Filipino culture places a high premium on the family unit, often prioritizing the well-being and academic success of children as a collective responsibility. Research has shown that Filipino parents, particularly in rural areas, engage in their children’s education through various forms of support, including providing emotional guidance, participating in school events, and ensuring the completion of academic tasks at home (Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020). This strong family orientation is reflected in Filipino parents’ high expectations for their children’s academic success, which they view as not only a personal achievement but also a source of familial pride. The concept of “bayanihan” (community cooperation) often extends to education, with parents and communities working together to support students’ learning, whether through informal tutoring or organizing educational resources (Pinantoan, 2021; Tadeo et al., 2023).

When compared to international trends, parental involvement in the Philippines exhibits both similarities and differences. Like in many countries, Filipino parents recognize the significance of school involvement for academic success, but their participation is often constrained by socio-economic factors. For instance, Filipino parents from lower socio-economic backgrounds may face challenges such as long working hours or limited access to educational resources, which can affect their capacity to engage in school-related activities (Matejevic et al., 2020; Tadeo et al., 2023). However, Filipino parents often make significant sacrifices to provide educational support at home, whether by helping with homework or creating a conducive learning environment despite limited resources (Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020). This sense of responsibility is often driven by the belief that education is a means of social mobility and improving one’s quality of life, which aligns with global patterns of parental engagement in students’ academic lives.

Parental Involvement in Adventist Academies

In Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) schools in the Philippines, parental involvement is uniquely shaped by the religious and educational philosophy that underpins these institutions. At the heart of the SDA educational model is the belief that education is not merely an academic pursuit, but also a spiritual development process. Parents within the SDA community often view their role as integral to both their children’s academic and spiritual growth. This perspective encourages active participation in their children’s education, as parents believe academic achievement is a reflection of not only intellectual development but also moral and spiritual advancement (Olsen, 2020). The centrality of faith in the education system fosters a holistic approach, where students are encouraged not only to excel in their studies but also to grow in their faith and character. Research conducted in SDA schools reveals that parents are frequently involved in school life beyond academics, engaging in religious activities, church events, and community service programs that align with the spiritual values promoted by the church (Pinantoan, 2021; Tadeo et al., 2023). This type of involvement extends the role of parents beyond academic support, shaping students’ overall character development and reinforcing the connection between education and faith.

Moreover, the religious foundation of SDA schools significantly influences the level and nature of parental involvement. Parents, motivated by their faith, are more inclined to see education as a collaborative endeavor between the home, school, and church. This collaborative dynamic is particularly emphasized in the SDA philosophy, which views the school not as a mere educational institution but as a community that supports the spiritual and moral growth of students. SDA parents actively work alongside teachers and administrators to create a supportive environment for their children’s academic and spiritual development (Olsen, 2020). This partnership often manifests in parents attending school events, participating in parent-teacher conferences, and volunteering for school activities, all of which contribute to a more engaged and connected school community. Such active involvement helps to reinforce the educational values that are central to the SDA mission, creating a learning atmosphere that encourages both academic and ethical growth.

Research has shown that when parents are more engaged in school-related activities, their children tend to exhibit greater academic engagement and success. In a study conducted in SDA academies in the Western Visayas, it was found that students whose parents attended school meetings, volunteered for extracurricular activities, or took an active interest in their children’s academic progress were more likely to perform well in school (Nierva, 2021). This suggests that the strength of the parent-school partnership plays a crucial role in shaping students’ academic attitudes and outcomes. Furthermore, the involvement of parents in the moral and ethical development of their children is a significant factor in shaping students’ behavior and attitudes toward learning. In SDA schools, where values such as integrity, discipline, and service are emphasized, students who are supported by involved parents are more likely to internalize these values and apply them in their academic work (Tadeo et al., 2023; Olsen, 2020). Thus, parental involvement in both academic and spiritual spheres creates a nurturing environment that supports the overall development of students.

The distinct role of religious values in promoting parental involvement in SDA schools is further supported by the emphasis on community engagement. In addition to providing academic support, parents in SDA schools are encouraged to foster a sense of responsibility and service within their children. For instance, many SDA schools in the Philippines include service-learning projects and community outreach programs as part of the curriculum, providing parents with additional opportunities to engage with the school (Tadeo et al., 2023). These initiatives strengthen the partnership between home, school, and church, as parents often accompany their children to volunteer activities or help organize community service events. The integration of these spiritual and community-based activities into the school curriculum reflects the holistic educational approach of SDA schools, where academic success is viewed as inseparable from moral and spiritual growth.

Finally, the role of parental involvement in the academic performance of students in SDA schools is further emphasized by the cultural context in the Philippines, where family ties are strong and parents are often deeply involved in their children’s educational journey. Studies suggest that Filipino parents, including those in SDA communities, generally prioritize their children’s education, seeing it as a means of upward mobility and family pride (Pinantoan, 2021; Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020). The communal and familial emphasis on education in the Philippines complements the educational approach of SDA schools, where parental involvement is not only a factor for academic success but also a means of reinforcing the values of service, faith, and community. The partnership between parents, students, and teachers creates an environment where students feel supported, motivated, and inspired to excel both academically and spiritually. This integration of academic achievement with moral and spiritual development highlights the unique role of parental involvement in SDA schools, where education transcends the classroom and becomes a lifelong process of growth and learning.

Post-COVID-19 Context

The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic brought significant changes to educational models worldwide, and the Philippines was no exception. During the height of the pandemic, many schools, including SDA academies, transitioned to online and blended learning models. This shift, while necessary to ensure the continuity of education, posed challenges for both students and parents, particularly those with limited access to technology or who were unprepared for remote learning environments (Gutman & Akerman, 2020). Parental involvement during this period was more critical than ever, as parents had to assume new roles as facilitators of learning, managing their children’s schedules, providing emotional support, and navigating technology platforms (Matejevic et al., 2020). Studies conducted during the pandemic in the Philippines revealed that the level of parental involvement varied, with some parents feeling overwhelmed by the demands of remote education, while others took on an active role in ensuring that their children kept up with schoolwork (Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020).

As schools transition back to face-to-face learning in the post-pandemic era, there are new opportunities and challenges for home-school collaboration. While the return to traditional classroom settings has alleviated some of the pressures associated with remote learning, there remains a need for schools to reinforce the importance of parental involvement, especially in light of the experiences gained during the “new normal.” The pandemic has underscored the need for stronger communication between parents and teachers, as both parties work together to support students’ academic engagement in a post-COVID world. Moreover, some studies have shown that the pandemic has led to increased awareness among parents of the importance of being actively involved in their children’s education, even as face-to-face learning resumes (Gutman & Akerman, 2020; Tadeo et al., 2023). Thus, the new normal in education has highlighted the need for innovative approaches to parental involvement that take into account both the lessons learned during the pandemic and the shifting dynamics of school-community partnerships.

Contextualizing the Study Region

The Western Visayas region, which comprises several provinces in the Philippines, presents a unique educational landscape where the involvement of parents in their children’s education is shaped by both socio-cultural and economic factors. Education in this region is not merely seen as a gateway to personal success but as a crucial pillar for community progress. Traditional Filipino values, such as strong family ties, respect for elders, and a sense of communal responsibility, significantly influence how parents engage with their children’s learning (Nierva, 2021; Tadeo et al., 2023). In rural areas of Western Visayas, where family connections are deeply rooted and schools are often seen as community centers, parental involvement extends beyond academic support and into collective efforts to support educational institutions. This community-centric approach highlights the Filipino belief that the home, school, and local community should work together to ensure a child’s educational success (Nierva, 2021). Such a collaborative approach also aligns with the Filipino cultural emphasis on “bayanihan,” or communal unity, where people come together to achieve common goals, including the academic success of the next generation (Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020).

In the context of Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) schools in the Western Visayas, parental involvement takes on a unique character, shaped by the religious and spiritual philosophy of the institution. SDA schools emphasize a holistic educational model that integrates academic excellence with moral, spiritual, and ethical development. This approach encourages parents to see their role as a collaborative partner in both the academic and spiritual growth of their children (Olsen, 2020). In these schools, parents are often involved in activities that extend beyond the academic curriculum, participating in school-based religious events, church services, and community service programs, all of which are aligned with SDA values (Pinantoan, 2021). The engagement of parents in these activities is seen as part of their responsibility to nurture the moral character and spiritual well-being of their children. Research conducted in SDA schools in the region supports this notion, finding that when parents actively engage in school activities, students tend to be more academically motivated and spiritually grounded (Nierva, 2021; Sapungan, 2014).

Further studies also reveal that the religious and academic values instilled in SDA schools contribute to a distinctive approach to education in the Western Visayas. For instance, research by Arboleda and Chua (2022) indicates that parental involvement in SDA schools is often driven by the belief that academic success is intertwined with spiritual growth. This philosophy encourages parents to view their participation in school activities as part of their duty to cultivate both intellectual and ethical virtues in their children. Studies in the region show that when parents in SDA schools participate in religious and academic events, it creates a nurturing environment that fosters student engagement and motivation (Pinantoan, 2021; Tadeo et al., 2023). The strong partnership between parents, teachers, and the church provides a cohesive framework for the child’s academic and spiritual development, resulting in higher levels of academic achievement and a well-rounded educational experience for students (Nierva, 2021; Sapungan, 2014).

Moreover, parental involvement in SDA schools in the Western Visayas has been linked to improved student outcomes not only in academic performance but also in overall character development. In a study by Aquino and Peralta (2022), it was noted that in Adventist schools, parents who are engaged in both academic and extracurricular activities influence their children’s academic success by providing them with a strong support system. This partnership not only improves academic outcomes but also strengthens the student’s sense of purpose and commitment to both their studies and their spiritual growth. Thus, SDA schools in the Western Visayas stand out for their ability to integrate the academic, moral, and spiritual development of students, largely due to the active involvement of parents (Olsen, 2020; Pinantoan, 2021).

Regional Studies on Parental Involvement and Student Performance

Several studies have examined the role of parental involvement in academic performance in the Western Visayas region, providing a deeper understanding of how parental engagement affects student outcomes. Research indicates that in both public and private schools, including SDA academies, parents who actively participate in their children’s academic lives—by attending parent-teacher meetings, supporting school events, and monitoring academic progress—tend to have children with higher academic performance (Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020; Sapungan, 2014). Furthermore, studies specific to the Western Visayas have highlighted the positive correlation between parental involvement and students’ engagement in school. Students whose parents maintain strong communication with teachers and engage in school activities demonstrate better study habits, higher academic motivation, and greater overall success (Nierva, 2021; Tadeo et al., 2023). This engagement is not limited to academic monitoring but extends to fostering a supportive environment at home where the importance of education is continually emphasized.

Moreover, regional studies have found that the effectiveness of parental involvement is often moderated by various factors such as socio-economic background, the educational level of parents, and the level of religious commitment within families. For example, in SDA schools, parents with higher educational attainment tend to be more proactive in their involvement, providing cognitive and emotional support that significantly impacts their children’s academic engagement (Olsen, 2020). Conversely, lower parental education levels sometimes correlate with less effective involvement, as parents may lack the skills or resources to provide academic support at home. In these cases, students may experience lower academic engagement and performance. This is particularly evident in rural areas of the Western Visayas where access to educational resources may be more limited, making it crucial for schools to implement strategies that encourage broader parental participation (Sapungan, 2014; Tadeo et al., 2023)

Gaps in Literature   

Despite an increasing volume of research exploring parental involvement in education, significant gaps remain regarding its impact on the academic performance of Grade 11 students in Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) schools in the Western Visayas region. Most existing studies have concentrated on younger students at the elementary and junior high school levels, with far less focus on the senior high school years. Grade 11 represents a critical stage in students’ academic journeys, where they start preparing for post-secondary education or career paths. This transitional phase often demands higher levels of academic rigor and personal responsibility, yet it is unclear how parental involvement during this time specifically influences student engagement and success. While parental involvement in earlier stages typically includes more direct support in homework, school activities, and emotional encouragement, the nature of involvement may shift as students become more independent and face more complex academic demands (Nierva, 2021; Pavalache & Tirdia, 2020). Current research does not adequately address how this shift in parental roles affects students in Adventist high schools, particularly those in Grade 11, where academic expectations and preparation for life after school become more pressing (Tadeo et al., 2023). Thus, studies focusing on the high school years, especially in the context of SDA schools, remain scarce.

Moreover, much of the research conducted on parental involvement has been based on public schools or general educational settings, with limited attention given to the unique dynamics within private Christian institutions, particularly Adventist schools. In the Philippines, SDA schools prioritize a holistic approach to education that integrates academic, moral, and spiritual development. This educational philosophy necessitates a distinct form of parental involvement, which goes beyond academic support to include fostering spiritual growth, attending religious services, and engaging in community-based activities (Olsen, 2020; Pinantoan, 2021). These elements of SDA schooling create a unique context for understanding parental involvement, yet few studies have explored how religious values and educational priorities intersect to influence the way parents engage with their children’s academic and spiritual development. As research by Tadeo et al. (2023) and Sapungan (2014) suggests, understanding the specific dynamics within Adventist schools in the Western Visayas is crucial to uncovering how parents in these communities contribute to both the academic success and spiritual formation of their children. Therefore, the literature fails to adequately address the impact of these dual educational goals—academic success and spiritual growth—on the nature and effectiveness of parental involvement.

Additionally, the lack of region-specific studies leaves an important gap in the literature regarding how cultural, socio-economic, and educational factors influence parental engagement in the Western Visayas context. While studies in other regions of the Philippines, such as Metro Manila or Luzon, have provided insights into parental involvement, the unique socio-cultural environment of Western Visayas has not been fully explored. Research in this region, such as that by Nierva (2021) and Pavalache & Tirdia (2020), highlights how local cultural values, such as communal support and strong family networks, influence educational outcomes. However, these studies often overlook the role of religious affiliation and its impact on educational practices, particularly within SDA communities. As the Western Visayas is home to a significant number of SDA schools, it is important to understand how regional cultural values, combined with religious principles, shape parental involvement and student outcomes. Therefore, a comprehensive examination of the interplay between cultural, socio-economic, and religious factors in shaping parental involvement in SDA schools in this region is a critical gap that warrants further investigation (Pinantoan, 2021; Tadeo et al., 2023).

Barriers to Parental Engagement

Parental involvement in education, while widely recognized for its positive impact on student outcomes, is often hindered by various barriers, particularly in regions like the Western Visayas. Socioeconomic constraints, such as financial limitations and work commitments, are common obstacles that restrict parents’ ability to engage in school-related activities. Studies indicate that parents in lower-income communities may struggle to balance their work schedules with their children’s academic needs, resulting in reduced participation in activities like parent-teacher conferences or volunteer work (Tannen, 2021; Thoits & Hewitt, 2020). In many households, parents are often preoccupied with securing the family’s economic stability, leaving little time or energy for involvement in their children’s education. This lack of time can be compounded by the high cost of transportation to and from school events, especially in rural areas, further limiting parental engagement. Moreover, parents with lower levels of education may not feel confident in assisting their children with academic tasks or communicating with school staff, leading to a sense of disengagement or helplessness in their children’s learning (Nierva, 2021; Tannen, 2021).

Another significant barrier lies in school policies and the available resources within the community. Schools, particularly in rural areas, may lack the infrastructure to effectively involve parents in their children’s education. Limited communication channels between home and school, a lack of parent involvement programs, or rigid school policies can discourage parents from becoming more engaged (Stebbins, 2020). In some cases, school leadership may not prioritize parental involvement, which can lead to a lack of opportunities for parents to connect with educators. Similarly, the availability of community resources, such as local organizations or support groups that can aid in fostering parental engagement, can also play a crucial role in either facilitating or hindering such involvement. Where these resources are scarce, the burden of parental involvement often falls solely on the family, exacerbating the challenges parents already face (Olsen, 2020; Stebbins, 2020).

Cultural and Societal Challenges

In addition to logistical and structural barriers, cultural and societal factors also play a significant role in shaping parental involvement in education. In the Philippines, traditional gender roles are deeply embedded in family dynamics and often influence the level and nature of parental participation in their children’s education. Cultural expectations, particularly in more conservative communities, may place primary responsibility for childcare and schooling on mothers, while fathers may be less involved in the academic aspects of their children’s lives (Nierva, 2021; Pinantoan, 2021). These gendered expectations can limit the scope of parental involvement, with mothers typically attending school meetings and handling school-related matters, while fathers remain detached from these processes. This gender imbalance in parental engagement may have implications for the overall academic performance and social development of students, as active involvement from both parents is often essential for fostering well-rounded student growth (Tannen, 2021). Furthermore, religious affiliation and beliefs can also affect how parents engage with schools, especially in religiously driven institutions like SDA schools, where values of faith and spirituality are intertwined with academic learning. In such contexts, religious teachings and practices may shape the kinds of involvement parents deem important, with a focus on moral and spiritual development alongside academic achievement (Olsen, 2020; Pinantoan, 2021).

In addition, societal expectations regarding educational success often create additional pressure for parents, especially those from lower socio-economic backgrounds. The perceived “proper” role of a parent in their child’s education can create stress for those who feel unable to meet these expectations due to economic or personal limitations. In rural and remote areas of the Western Visayas, these societal pressures may be exacerbated by limited access to quality education and fewer opportunities for parental support. These factors contribute to a societal barrier to parental involvement, where the expectations surrounding education may conflict with the realities of family life, leading to lower levels of engagement despite parents’ desire to support their children’s academic success (Stebbins, 2020; Nierva, 2021). Understanding how these cultural and societal factors intersect with the challenges of parental involvement is crucial in developing strategies to enhance engagement, especially in the context of SDA schools, where academic and spiritual values are integral to the educational process.

Addressing the Challenges to Parental Involvement

The barriers to parental involvement discussed above highlight the need for a multi-faceted approach to addressing these challenges. Schools and communities must work together to develop strategies that provide more inclusive and accessible opportunities for parents to engage with their children’s education. Initiatives such as flexible meeting schedules, online communication platforms, and parent support programs can help mitigate some of the time and logistical barriers parents face (Olsen, 2020; Tannen, 2021). Additionally, fostering a more gender-equitable environment by encouraging both mothers and fathers to participate equally in their children’s academic lives is vital for promoting a balanced approach to parental involvement (Tannen, 2021; Nierva, 2021). Schools should also consider integrating more culturally relevant support for families, including religious values and practices that align with the parents’ beliefs, to encourage deeper engagement. By recognizing and addressing the complex barriers that affect parental involvement, educational institutions can create a more supportive and effective learning environment for all students.

Existing Programs and Initiatives

Increasing parental involvement in education has become a central focus for both educational policymakers and school administrators in the Philippines, particularly within faith-based schools like Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) academies. Existing initiatives to foster home-school collaboration in these schools aim to encourage more active participation from parents in their children’s academic and spiritual development. Several programs have been introduced in recent years, many of which are school-driven but are also supported by government initiatives. For instance, in SDA academies, schools have implemented parent-teacher associations (PTAs), regular parent meetings, and faith-oriented events, which provide opportunities for parents to actively engage with the school community and understand the holistic development of their children (Olsen, 2020). These programs align with the philosophy of SDA education, where academic achievement is complemented by moral and spiritual growth. In addition to these school-specific initiatives, there are also government programs aimed at improving parental involvement across the broader education system, such as DepEd’s “Sulong Edukalidad” program, which advocates for greater family participation in school governance and activities (Tadeo et al., 2023). However, the effectiveness of these efforts often depends on the active engagement of the school community and the resources available to support these initiatives.

Strategies for Enhancing Parental Involvement

One of the most effective ways to enhance parental involvement is through the development of strategies that promote clear and consistent communication between parents and schools. Epstein’s (2020) framework for parental involvement identifies six key types of engagement: parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision-making, and collaborating with the community. Schools in the Western Visayas, particularly SDA academies, can benefit from adopting these strategies to create a more structured and purposeful approach to parental involvement. For instance, schools can provide regular communication updates, such as newsletters or text message reminders, to keep parents informed about school events, deadlines, and their children’s progress. In the post-pandemic environment, digital tools and platforms have become increasingly important in facilitating this communication, especially for parents who may face geographical or time constraints. Virtual meetings, online reporting systems, and educational apps can bridge the communication gap, ensuring that parents remain involved even when they cannot attend school in person (Gutman & Akerman, 2020; Pinantoan, 2021). Moreover, involving parents in decision-making processes, such as through school councils or advisory boards, can help create a more inclusive environment that values their input and expertise, further fostering a sense of community and shared responsibility for students’ academic outcomes (Olsen, 2020).

The Role of Digital Tools in Parental Involvement

In the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, digital tools have emerged as a critical element in maintaining parental engagement in education. Schools, including SDA academies, have increasingly utilized platforms such as Google Classroom, Zoom, and school-specific portals to provide parents with real-time updates on their children’s academic progress and participation. The convenience of digital communication allows for timely interactions between parents and teachers, enabling them to address academic concerns more effectively. In addition, online workshops and webinars have been used to provide parents with the knowledge and skills to better support their children in their learning journeys. Digital platforms also facilitate the provision of educational resources and assignments, helping parents become more actively involved in learning at home, even if they are not physically present at the school (Gutman & Akerman, 2020; Stebbins, 2020). As schools transition back to in-person learning, the hybrid model of communication – combining face-to-face interactions with digital tools – may offer a sustainable and inclusive way to engage all parents, regardless of their socioeconomic or geographical circumstances.

Training Programs for Parents

Empowering parents with the skills and knowledge needed to support their children’s academic success is crucial in improving parental involvement. Several educational organizations and schools, including SDA academies, have implemented training programs and workshops designed to build parents’ confidence and capabilities in supporting their children’s education. These programs can focus on a variety of topics, from helping parents navigate digital learning platforms to strategies for supporting homework completion and study habits (Tannen, 2021). Workshops that focus on developing parenting skills, communication strategies, and understanding the school’s academic expectations can also be highly beneficial. Parents who feel confident in their ability to assist their children with school-related tasks are more likely to be actively involved in their children’s education, leading to improved academic outcomes (Nierva, 2021). Additionally, these training programs can address cultural and religious aspects of parenting, particularly within SDA schools, where the integration of faith-based principles into academic work requires a unique set of strategies to engage both parents and students effectively. By equipping parents with the tools they need, schools can help create a more supportive and proactive learning environment for students.

Collaborative Approaches to Enhancing Parent-School Relationships

Beyond training and communication strategies, schools in the Western Visayas, particularly SDA academies, must adopt a collaborative approach to parental involvement, recognizing that the success of any educational system is dependent on the joint efforts of parents, students, and educators. Developing a collaborative training program that enhances these relationships can offer long-term benefits for both academic and personal student growth. The training program could focus on shared responsibility models, where parents and teachers work together to monitor student progress, address challenges, and celebrate achievements. Furthermore, fostering a culture of openness and mutual respect between schools and families can encourage parents to take a more active role in their children’s education, reinforcing the notion that education is a partnership, not a one-sided responsibility (Olsen, 2020; Pinantoan, 2021). Such initiatives are especially crucial for SDA schools in the Western Visayas, where the integration of both academic and spiritual goals requires strong alignment between the home and school environments.

Summary of Key Findings

A review of existing literature highlights several crucial findings regarding parental involvement in students’ academic engagement. Studies consistently show that active parental engagement can positively influence student performance and motivation, with increased academic outcomes and higher levels of engagement. However, these findings often focus on younger students, particularly those in primary or junior high school, with limited attention given to high school students, especially in specific educational settings such as Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) schools. In the context of Filipino education, parental involvement has been shown to significantly correlate with academic success, yet the dynamics vary across different religious, socioeconomic, and educational backgrounds. Research by Tadeo et al. (2023) and Nierva (2021) has identified that the level of parental engagement is influenced by factors such as parents’ educational attainment, family income, and religious affiliation, which in turn affects the students’ academic performance. Additionally, the studies indicate that while many interventions are directed toward younger children, high school students, particularly those in Grade 11, represent a critical stage where parental involvement might change or diminish due to increasing independence among students.

Identified Gaps

Despite the valuable insights derived from the literature, significant gaps remain in the existing body of research, particularly concerning the specific context of SDA academies in the Western Visayas. While there is an increasing interest in the role of parental involvement across different educational settings in the Philippines, limited studies have focused on the particular dynamics of SDA schools. These institutions blend both academic and spiritual education, and understanding how parents engage in this unique setting is essential for improving student outcomes. Furthermore, existing literature often overlooks the intersection of demographic factors such as gender, religious affiliation, and socioeconomic status with parental involvement, particularly at the high school level. For instance, while much of the research on parental engagement has been conducted in public schools or in more general educational contexts (Tannen, 2021; Stebbins, 2020), very little has been done within the framework of Adventist education, which integrates spiritual growth into academic learning (Olsen, 2020). The absence of studies in this area suggests a need for more targeted research focused on the Western Visayas region, especially among Grade 11 students in SDA academies.

Need for More Research Focused on the Western Visayas Region

The Western Visayas region, known for its distinct cultural, social, and educational characteristics, remains underrepresented in the current literature on parental involvement. While studies from the National Capital Region (NCR) and other parts of the Philippines have contributed significantly to the discourse, the regional variations in parental engagement, particularly in faith-based schools like SDA academies, have yet to be thoroughly explored. The unique socio-cultural context of the Western Visayas—where religious affiliations, educational standards, and community expectations often shape parental attitudes and involvement—warrants more detailed investigation. As highlighted by Pinantoan (2021) and Tadeo et al. (2023), religious affiliation plays a vital role in shaping educational practices, yet there is still limited research on how the intersection of religion, educational level, and socio-economic factors influences parental involvement in schools with religious affiliations. Conducting studies in the Western Visayas would help address this gap by providing a nuanced understanding of how these factors shape parental involvement in SDA schools and the academic engagement of Grade 11 students in this specific context.

Lack of Data on the Intersection of Parental Involvement and Demographic Factors

One of the most significant gaps in the literature is the lack of data on how parental involvement interacts with demographic factors such as religion, gender, and socio-economic status, particularly in the context of Filipino education. While there is a body of research that demonstrates the importance of these factors in shaping student performance, few studies have explored the inter-section between them in a holistic manner (Stebbins, 2020). For example, research has shown that parental education levels significantly affect how involved parents are in their children’s education (Tannen, 2021), but there is limited exploration of how other demographic factors, such as the religious affiliation of parents or students—affect their engagement in the academic lives of students, particularly in faith-based schools. In SDA academies, where education intertwines with religious teachings, understanding the specific ways in which parental religious beliefs influence their level of involvement is crucial for tailoring effective interventions (Nierva, 2021). Additionally, gender differences in parental involvement, particularly the differing roles of fathers and mothers in the education of their children, remain under-explored in the context of high school education.

To sum up, while there is a growing body of literature on parental involvement, significant gaps remain, particularly in the context of Seventh-day Adventist schools in the Western Visayas and at the Grade 11 level. This study seeks to fill these gaps by focusing on how various demographic factors such as parents’ educational backgrounds, religious affiliation, and the socio-economic status of families affect parental engagement in schools. Moreover, the research aims to explore the role of demographic variables in moderating the relationship between parental involvement and student academic performance, with the goal of contributing valuable insights that could inform both policy and practice in enhancing parental engagement in education. By addressing these gaps, this study can help refine strategies for fostering greater home-school collaboration, ultimately improving academic outcomes and supporting the holistic development of students in SDA

METHODOLOGY

This section presents the research design, locale of the study, respondents of the study, research instrument, and statistical tools that were utilized in the conduct of this academic endeavor. The following is presented to guide readers regarding research undertakings of the researcher.

Research Design

This study utilizes a descriptive-correlational survey method to examine the perceived levels of parental involvement and academic engagement among Grade 11 students in Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) academies within the Western Visayas region. The research seeks to measure the relationship between parental involvement and students’ academic engagement, as well as how these factors differ across various demographic profiles, such as parental and student gender, religious affiliation, educational background, and the source of Junior High School (JHS) education. The descriptive approach provides an overview of the current state of parental involvement and academic engagement, while the correlational design assesses the strength and nature of the relationships between these variables. These methods are suited for this study, as they allow for a thorough exploration of the conditions under investigation and the interactions between these key factors (Gutman & Akerman, 2020; Tadeo et al., 2023).

The descriptive component of the study involves measuring and describing the levels of parental involvement as perceived by both parents and students, as well as students’ academic engagement and performance. It explores various dimensions of parental involvement, such as participation in school activities, helping with homework, and engaging in parent-teacher conferences, and assesses how these aspects may influence student outcomes (Stebbins, 2020; Nierva, 2021). This method is essential for gaining insight into the existing conditions and understanding how these experiences are perceived by the respondents, which is particularly important in the context of faith-based educational settings, like SDA schools.

The correlational aspect allows the researcher to investigate the relationships between parental involvement and academic performance. By using correlational analysis, the study will explore whether higher levels of parental involvement are associated with improved academic engagement and performance among students. Additionally, this method reveals how these relationships may vary across specific groups based on demographic characteristics (Tadeo et al., 2023). Understanding the interaction between parental involvement and student engagement is crucial, as studies have shown that the benefits of parental involvement are contingent on factors such as socio-economic status, cultural norms, and parental education (Pinantoan, 2021; Nierva, 2021).

Descriptive-correlational research is particularly suitable for this study as it aims to gather information on the nature, degree, and relationship of variables, allowing for both the description and interpretation of the prevailing conditions in SDA academies. As noted by Aggarwal (2008) and Alias (2013), this research design helps to illuminate the dynamics between various factors, making it ideal for understanding the complex interplay between parental engagement and student academic outcomes in the context of religious schools.

In addition to these core methodologies, this study explores how parental involvement and academic engagement vary when grouped according to various profile characteristics. By examining how the interplay of gender, religious affiliation, educational background, and JHS educational source impacts parental involvement and student performance, this research contributes to the understanding of how specific demographic factors shape the home-school relationship in Filipino SDA academies (Pinantoan, 2021; Olsen, 2020).

Locale of the Study

The present study was conducted in several Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) owned and operated academies within the Western Visayas region, specifically located in three key institutions: a large Higher Education Institution (HEI) situated on a 120-hectare campus, a stand-alone academy located in Negros, and another stand-alone academy located in Iloilo province. These schools are all part of the Adventist education system in the Philippines, which aims to combine academic excellence with Christian values to nurture holistic student development. The researcher, who has been employed as an educator within this educational network for several years, selected these institutions due to their distinctive characteristics and the researcher’s familiarity with their unique academic cultures.

Seventh-day Adventist schools in the Philippines, including those in the Western Visayas region, are part of the broader global network of Adventist educational institutions that emphasize faith-based learning alongside academic rigor. Adventist education is underpinned by a commitment to developing not only students’ intellectual capabilities but also their spiritual, emotional, and social growth (Bauer, 2019). The mission of these schools is to foster a comprehensive education that integrates a biblical worldview, encouraging students to serve both their communities and their faith. Within the Western Visayas region, Adventist academies offer a range of programs from elementary to senior high school, which are designed to provide a high-quality education in a supportive and nurturing environment (Lam & Lantican, 2018).

School A (Boarding School with a 120-hectare Campus): This school, a sprawling Higher Education Institution (HEI), offers a comprehensive range of academic programs, from basic education to tertiary education. It is characterized by a large, rural, boarding campus that accommodates students from various provinces within the region and beyond. The school’s setting provides an immersive learning environment, where students not only focus on academics but are also involved in extra-curricular activities, which are integrated into their holistic development (Ruggiero & Parro, 2017). With a student population composed primarily of boarders, parental involvement is often facilitated through virtual or periodic face-to-face communication during scheduled events, such as parent-teacher conferences and religious activities.

School B (Negros-based Stand-alone Academy): Located in Negros, this academy is a stand-alone institution that serves both day students and boarders, with a primary focus on high school education. The school’s smaller, community-based environment allows for a closer connection between educators, students, and parents, fostering a strong sense of camaraderie and collaboration. The academy’s mission is rooted in providing an education that is grounded in Adventist principles, while also preparing students for higher education and professional careers (Hernandez & Garcia, 2019). Parental involvement is often expressed through active participation in school-sponsored activities, spiritual programs, and volunteer work, aligning with the SDA education philosophy of community service and outreach.

School C (Iloilo-based Stand-alone Academy): This academy, situated in Iloilo, shares similar characteristics with School B, offering a boarding school experience that is deeply influenced by Adventist teachings. The school promotes an integrated approach to education, where faith, academics, and social responsibility are given equal emphasis. The relationship between the school and parents is especially important here, as it helps create a nurturing environment for students to thrive academically and spiritually. Parents are often involved in school activities such as retreats, spiritual enrichment programs, and academic support sessions, which help enhance student performance (Lacuesta & Sinay, 2020).

Adventist education in the Philippines is grounded in the belief that parents, teachers, and the church community should work collaboratively to nurture the full potential of each student. This philosophy emphasizes the importance of parental involvement in the educational process, believing that parents play a vital role in supporting students’ academic performance, behavior, and spiritual development (Dizon & Pahila, 2020). This collaborative model is particularly emphasized within Adventist academies, where the strong faith-based community fosters an environment of mutual support and growth. In these settings, parents are not only considered as primary educators but are encouraged to actively participate in school life, which is thought to significantly impact students’ educational outcomes (Lantican & Lam, 2021).

Respondents of the Study

The respondents of this academic pursuit are the grade 11 students of SDA academies in Western Visayas. Further, these learners are officially listed in aforesaid grade teachers’ class records enrolled for the school year 2022-2023 using face-to-face learning modality. The teachers’ records were counter-checked with that of the school principal’s records.

Eligibility criteria include: (1) officially listed as grade 11 students in the teachers’ and principal’s records of aforementioned academies, (2) students must have complete grades in all subjects during the first and second grading period of S.Y. 2022-2023, (3) willingness to participate in the study, and (4) ability to answer completely and submit questionnaires on time as required, (5) parental consent for below 18 respondents, (6) with actual parent who also serve as additional respondent of the study, (7) attending a full face to face learning modality.

No sampling technique was utilized since all qualified grade 11 students of SDA academies in Western Visayas were utilized as respondents of this study. Exclusion criterion includes wilful blind blocking of answers without thorough perusal of questionnaire/s as evidenced by erratic answers in items 7 and 11 as reversed items in the parental involvement questionnaire.

Research Instruments

The instruments that utilized in this study are parents’ involvement and the official report card of teachers. In measuring levels of parents’ involvement as perceived by respondents (pupils), a 20-item self-made questionnaire anchored on some portions of parental involvement model of Epstein (1967) was utilized. It contains a 6-point scale per question, ranging from strongly agree (6 points) to strongly disagree (1 point). Item numbers 7 and 11 only are reversed to assess blocked responses from respondents. This will be done to exclude respondents who do not read questionnaire items carefully. Other finance and volunteering frameworks were also utilized in drafting the instrument.

Validity of the Instrument

Face and content validities of parents involvement questionnaire was assessed utilizing Good and Scate’s instrument face and content validity tool. Delphi method was utilized in which three (3) experts on the field of parents involvement was selected to rate the aforesaid instrument’s validity. This was composed of a school administrator, guidance counsellor, and a seasoned professional with master’s degree in guidance counselling or nursing, or human relations. The result was set at a minimum passing of 4.0 out of 5.0 as the perfect mean. Furthermore, criterion validity will be anchored on Joyce Epstein’s six-dimensioned parental involvement model. Each dimension was represented with five (5) questions covering up a 20-item questionnaire self-constructed questionnaire.

Reliability of the Instrument

Consistency of results was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha method. Cronbach’s alpha method with each item deleted was used to assess the ability of each question in terms of its contribution on the degree of research instrument reliability enhancement. Passing result was set at 0.70 or 70%. Per item result was assessed with the assistance and guidance of the statistician and adviser and was retained, revised, or removed based upon the results in the premise of pilot testing that will be conducted.

Data Gathering Procedures

Study was done through a survey method. School dean, panel members’, and adviser’s go signal or approval was secured to commence this study. Pilot testing was done in order to assess reliability of self-constructed questionnaire. Necessary revisions was done as deemed appropriate. Then, all eligible respondents representing the schools involved was oriented and was distributed of the questionnaires applicable for this study after parental letter of consent and school management approval was secured. Parental view was gathered during official school function/s. Instructions were elaborated on how to answer the questionnaire and issue of confidentiality was guaranteed accordingly. The researcher observed the respondents during data gathering, thus making sure that they are the ones who filled out the questionnaire. This was assisted by a research assistant to be approved by CPAC in order to ensure honesty of actual data collection process. Enough time was provided for respondents to complete the answers needed. The results were tallied in the excel processor with the guidance adviser and statistician for further analysis through statistical packages.

Statistical Analysis

Mean or average was used in order to measure the degree of parental involvement in school activities when taken as a whole and classified according to selected profile characteristics.

Mean is also known as average by lay persons. It is the sum of measures divided by the number of measures. It is used when the data are symmetrically distributed around a central point. Further, t test is used when the data are measured in interval or ratio scales. It is considered as the most reliable or stable measure of centrality if the distribution is approximately normal. Mean is also used in measuring the academic performance of learners when taken as a whole and classified according to sex, economic status, and grade level.

To find out significant differences on the degree of parental involvement in school activities when respondents are classified according to selected profile characteristics, T-test independent or F-test (one-way ANOVA) will be utilized if the result has no violations on the assumptions of parametric tests. Alternative non-parametric tests will be used in the presence of assumption violations.

T-test independent is used to compare the mean scores, on some continuous variable, for 2 different groups of subjects. Such needs the following: 1 categorical independent variable (cause), the same but of two groups and 1 continuous, dependent variable (effect) like nutritional status in terms of BMI. Specifically, this test will find out significant difference in the means of 2 (independent) groups. F test is an extension of t-test for independent samples (t_id). It was developed by R. Fisher to test for significant difference between 2 or more than 2 averages. Also, it is used to compare 2 or more group means in the light of a single variable based on independent samples from each group. Since one-way ANOVA is an omnibus test statistic and cannot tell the reader which specific groups ware significantly different from each other; it only tells the interpreter that at least two groups are significantly different. For this, post-hoc test or post-hoc analysis in the form of Scheffe will be utilized to determine which specific group will significantly differ from another specific group. Same tests were also used in finding for significant differences on the academic performance of learners when classified according to sex, economic status, grade level, and birth order.

In finding out significant relationships between parental involvement in school activities and learners’ academic performance, Pearson r will be used. Pearson product moment correlation is symbolized r_xy. It is used when two data are interval or ratio and bivariate (like x and y). To use this test, 2 variables: both continuous are needed. Pearson r describes the relationship between 2 continuous variables, in terms of both strength and direction of the relationship. Its non-parametric alternative test is Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation.

Test of moderation was used to determine significant effects of the moderator variables.

Ethical Considerations

In this study, ethical consideration will be specified as one of the most important parts of the research. The researcher believes that a study may even be doomed to failure if this part is missing. In this academic paper, the following ethical points represent the most important principles related to ethical considerations in dissert: (1) research respondents will not be subjected to harm in any ways whatsoever, (2) respect for the dignity of research respondents will be prioritized, (3) full consent will be obtained from the respondents prior to the study; (4) protection of the privacy of research respondents will be ensured, (5) adequate level of confidentiality of the research data will be ensured, (6) anonymity of individuals participating in the research will be kept undisclosed, except for the members of research team (adviser, statistician, researcher herself), (7) any deception or exaggeration about the aims and objectives of the research will be avoided, (8) affiliations in any forms, sources of funding, as well as any possible conflicts of interests are to be declared, (9) any type of communication in relation to the research will be done with honesty and transparency, (10) any type of misleading information, as well as representation of primary data findings in a biased way will be minimized if not totally avoided.

In order to address ethical considerations aspect of this paper in an effective manner, expanded discussions of each of the following will be explicated: (1) voluntary participation of respondents in the research is important. Moreover, participants had rights to withdraw from the study at any stage when they wished doing so, (2) respondents participate on the basis of informed consent. The principle of informed consent involves researcher providing sufficient information and assurances about taking part which will allow individuals to understand the implications of participation and to reach a fully informed, considered and freely given decision about whether or not to do so, without the exercise of any pressure or coercion, (3) use of offensive, discriminatory, or other unacceptable language is to be avoided in the formulation of Questionnaire/Interview/interview questions, (4) privacy and anonymity or respondents will be considered of paramount importance, (5) acknowledgement of works of other authors used in any part of the dissertation with the use of APA referencing system according to the guidelines will be observed, (6) maintenance of the highest level of objectivity in discussions and analyses throughout the research, (8) adherence to Data Protection Act as applicable in the Philippine setting.

Biblical Perspectives

Bible says in the book of proverbs 22:6 “ Train up a child in the way he should go, Even when he is old he will not depart from it.”  Children are a gift from God and should be trained in godly conduct, wise choices, and accountability. Christian parents should set an example of right living and of godly conduct and pray daily. However, some children may depart from the path of righteousness and become rebellious. Scripture encourages parents to pray for their children’s repentance and look for the day when they return to the fold with a penitent heart and a cry for forgiveness. However, there are those who have not been brought up in the way they should go, and God is not willing that any should perish but that all should come to repentance. We should train our children in the way they should go and share the good news of Jesus Christ. Source: https://dailyverse.knowing-jesus.com/proverbs-22-6

Furthermore Ellen G White stated that every family in the home life should be a church, a beautiful symbol of the church of God in heaven. If parents realized their responsibilities to their children, they would not under any circumstances scold and fret at them. This is not the kind of education any child should have. Many, many children have learned to be faultfinding, fretful, scolding, passionate children, because they were allowed to be passionate at home. Parents are to consider that they are in the place of God to their children, to encourage every right principle and repress every wrong thought. (EGW Child Guidance 480,1)

Jesus Says, “Train These Children for Me.”—Parents should seek to comprehend the fact that they are to train their children for the courts of God. When they are entrusted with children, it is the same as though Christ placed them in their arms and said, “Train these children for Me, that they may shine in the courts of God.” One of the first sounds that should attract their attention is the name of Jesus, and in their earliest years they should be led to the footstool of prayer. Their minds should be filled with stories of the life of the Lord, and their imaginations encouraged in picturing the glories of the world to come (Child Guidance 488,3)

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION

This segment is devoted at showing the empirical results of the paper both in descriptive and in inferential methods. Tabular and textual types of presentation methods are being utilized. To provide meaning and color to the collected data, patterns, trends, characteristics of information are highlighted. Moreover, related studies and references are utilized to explicate the inferences of data presented.

Parental Involvement

The table below shows the levels of parental involvement as perceived by parents and as perceived by students. Students’ perception has gender (male / female), religion (SDA / non-SDA), and JHS education (same SDA school / another SDA school / Non-SDA school / public school) as variables. Moreover, parents’ perception on parental involvement in the academic pursuit of children has gender (male / female or mother / father), religious affiliation (SDA / non-SDA), and educational attainment (professional / non-professional).

The first column contains the items, and the indicators. Indicators are grouped according to dimension of parental involvement. The second column is about the mean scores or average scores. Each indicator and every dimension is measured of mean or average score as rated by respondents. The first mean score is from students, and the second mean score (lower row) is from parents who served as respondents. The third column contains the verbal interpretation while the 4^th column is about the rank of every indicator or item. Upper interpretations and ranks that belong to student group and lower interpretations and ranks are from parents’ responses.

Table 1 Profile Characteristics of Respondents

The table above shows that the combined average scores for parental involvement, as rated by both parents and students, is 4.43, which falls under the “moderately high” category. The average scores for parents (4.48) and students (4.38) also fall into the “moderately high” category. In terms of the student categories, non-SDA students achieved the highest average score, followed by those who attended government schools for Junior High School (JHS), and female students placed third. Among the parents, fathers (male parents) recorded the highest average score, followed by professional parents, with non-SDA parents ranking third. When the dimensions of parental involvement are ranked according to mean scores in descending order, the sequence is as follows: financing (ranked 1st), parenting and volunteering (tied for 2nd), followed lastly by communicating (ranked 3rd).

The highest-rated indicator of parental involvement, as perceived by students, is the support for basic clothing needed for school, followed by support for school supplies, such as pens, paper, and pencils. The third-ranked indicator is the allowance for extracurricular activities, including sports competitions, cultural shows, and field trips. From the parents’ perspective, the highest-rated indicators are the same as the students’ ratings: support for school clothing and supplies, with the third highest being the support for extracurricular activities. Out of the 20 indicators of parental involvement, as rated by students, 11 had moderately high mean scores, 5 had slightly high mean scores, 2 had very high mean scores, and 2 had slightly low mean scores. From the parents’ perspective, 9 indicators had moderately high mean scores, 5 had slightly high mean scores, 4 had very high mean scores, 1 had a moderately low mean score, and 1 had a slightly low mean score.

Several socio-political factors, such as socioeconomic status and parents’ negative school experiences, can affect the level of parental involvement in their children’s education (LaRocque et al., 2011). One of the most frequently cited factors contributing to the level of parental involvement is the parents’ educational background (Pena, 2020; Lee & Bowen, 2020). For instance, Lee and Bowen (2020) found that parents with at least a two-year college degree tend to be more involved in school activities, attend meetings, discuss educational issues with their children, and expect greater academic success from them. This aligns with the findings of this study. Conversely, parents with lower levels of education may feel less confident in contacting school staff or engaging in school-related discussions, as they might not feel equipped to contribute to their children’s education in this way (Lee & Bowen, 2020).

Interestingly, however, Pena (2020) identified that parents with lower education levels tend to volunteer more frequently at school activities than those with higher education levels. The challenge for lower-educated parents, as they report, lies in their perceived inability to assist their children with homework or other school-related tasks due to their limited knowledge. On the other hand, parents with higher educational attainment often cite a lack of time as the main barrier to their involvement (Baeck, 2020). This aligns with the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the study’s locale, where parents are generally more professional or better off financially, which supports the previous explanations.

Parents are more likely to become involved if they understand that their involvement is not only expected by the school but also by their children (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2021). In the context of the Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) school system, which emphasizes strong family values, students often expect their parents to support their educational endeavors. However, students’ calls for involvement may vary based on several factors, including their desire for independence and their academic performance (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2021). Crozier (2020) further explains that while parents might perceive their children’s requests for independence as a reason to stay uninvolved, many students value their parents’ support and view it as beneficial to their academic success.

Hornby and Lafaele (2021) also found that students’ age can influence parental involvement, with involvement typically decreasing as students advance to higher grades. Gender differences in parental involvement have also been documented. Deslandes and Potvin (2020) reported that mothers of male students tend to contact teachers more frequently than mothers of female students. Additionally, Cooper et al. (2020) noted that in elementary school, male students’ parents are more involved than female students’ parents, but in high school, female students’ parents tend to be more involved than those of male students. Furthermore, Eccles and Harold (2020) suggested that parents of higher-achieving students are more likely to engage in school activities than parents of students with lower academic performance.

Academic Performance of Student Respondents

The table below contains the academic performances of student respondents in terms of their first semester grade point average (GPA) or general average rating. Levels of students’ academic performances are taken as a whole and are grouped according to parent’s gender, parent’s religion, parent’s educational attainment, student’s religion, student’s gender, and student’s source of JHS education. The first column contains the variables and groups under each variable. The second column contains the academic performances of students in terms of mean or average rating in the first semester of the SY 2022-2023. The third column contains the interpretation or grade description as adopted from the card template issued by the Department of Education. The 4^th column contains the rank of each indicator as compared to all of the indicators in the questionnaire.

Table 2 Academic Performances of Student Respondents

Source: DepEd Card Template

As shown above, the grand mean score for students’ academic performance, based on their first grading period GPA, is 90.38, which is interpreted as “outstanding.” Eight of the 14 groups in the study achieved “outstanding” performance, while five groups scored within the “very satisfactory” range. One group, consisting of students who completed their Junior High School (JHS) education at a non-SDA private school, was excluded from the analysis due to the inability to calculate their mean score. The top three groups with the highest academic performance were students who completed their JHS education at another SDA school, followed by female students, and then students whose parents are professionals. Conversely, the three groups with the lowest academic performance were students with non-SDA parents, male students, and students whose parents are not professionals.

The academic performance of students has been widely studied, with researchers consistently recognizing that schools play a pivotal role in the acquisition of knowledge. Schools, as the primary institutions for learning, shape the intellectual development of students, facilitated by teachers and various other stakeholders. Siemens (2020) emphasized the need for educators to identify the factors that differentiate high-performing students from those with lower academic outcomes, so that targeted interventions can be implemented. Academic performance is often used as an indicator of school effectiveness (Ogunsola et al., 2020).

Factors that influence students’ academic performance are multifaceted and vary widely. These factors include social, psychological, economic, environmental, and personal influences, all of which can have a significant impact on academic achievement. Importantly, these factors vary from individual to individual and from institution to institution (Ogunsola et al., 2020). Given that the study locale is a church-run institution, it is expected that students benefit from considerable social support, as the schools are also boarding institutions. However, individual differences remain a key determinant of  academic performance, underscoring the importance of considering each student’s unique background and personal factors (Jilardi-Damavandi et al., 2021).

Classrooms remain a central space for learning, where the interaction between teachers and students facilitates the transmission of knowledge and curriculum content. Teachers who possess the skills to employ various strategies to enhance learning outcomes tend to produce better academic results. Research has shown that teaching practices that incorporate diverse and engaging methods often lead to improved student performance (Frufonga et al., 2020).

The relationship between students and teachers, alongside the broader academic environment, is crucial to academic performance. Without student success, the progress and achievements of both teachers and the institution as a whole would be limited. Gilbert (2020) emphasized that student performance is a key determinant of institutional success. Over the years, researchers have examined how various factors—academic, social, psychological, economic, and environmental—contribute to students’ performance in school (Vermunt, 2020; Azhar et al., 2020).

Many studies have identified factors that influence academic performance, although these factors differ depending on the individual student and the institutional context. For instance, Tsinidou et al. (2021) pointed out that the teacher-student relationship, course relevance, and perceived course usefulness can significantly affect academic performance. Other factors, such as the classroom environment, teacher effectiveness, and student motivation, also play a major role in determining academic outcomes (You, 2021). The study locale benefits from a peaceful campus environment, which helps students focus on their studies. Additionally, factors such as course experience, student effort, and learning strategies are significant contributors to academic achievement (Diseth et al., 2020).

The mission and vision of the school also contribute to student motivation. The religious and spiritual context of the institution provides students with a deeper sense of purpose and direction, which goes beyond merely achieving academic success. The school’s emphasis on faith and purpose enhances students’ intrinsic motivation to perform well academically, aligning with the mission of the church (Frufonga et al., 2020).

On the other hand, various studies have highlighted factors that contribute to weak academic performance in educational institutions globally (Diseth et al., 2020; Wintre et al., 2021; Azhar et al., 2021; Sæl et al., 2021). These factors generally fall into three categories: personal, teacher-related, and institutional factors. Economic factors are also crucial, as they can strongly influence students’ grades and overall academic performance (Sunshine et al., 2020). Furthermore, students’ academic outcomes are closely tied to their socio-economic status, with the income or social status of parents having a significant effect, either positively or negatively, on students’ performance and examination grades (Vermunt, 2020; Azhar et al., 2020).

Significant Differences on Parental Involvement

The table below contains the hypotheses testing summary in determining significant differences in the levels of parental involvement in the academic pursuit of students as perceived by parents and students. Such are grouped according to parents’ and students’ selected profile characteristics. The first column contains the variables and groups. The second column contains the mean or average scores on parental involvement per group. The third column specifies the statistical inferential test utilized and the result of significant value or also called as the p value. The 4^th column contains the interpretation of the p value as compared to the margin of error (0.05). Furthermore, it also contains decision whether to reject or not to reject the null hypothesis of the study.

Table 3 Testing for Significant Differences – Parental Involvement

Where the margin of error = 0.05 or 5%

As indicated in the table, the p-values for parental involvement, as perceived by parents, show significant differences based on certain parent characteristics. For instance, parents’ gender was found to be significant (p = 0.005), with fathers perceiving themselves to be more involved than mothers. Educational attainment also showed a significant difference (p = 0.029), with professional parents reporting higher levels of involvement compared to non-professional parents. However, no significant differences were observed based on parents’ religion (p = 0.174). On the students’ side, no significant differences were found in parental involvement when grouped according to students’ gender, religion, or source of Junior High School (JHS) education, as all p-values exceeded 0.05.

Parenting is highly valued in Philippine society, as family is seen as a central element of one’s social world. However, the social context in which Filipino families operate has undergone rapid changes over the past decade (Ochoa & Torre, 2023). As children’s learning experiences increasingly span various environments, parents are uniquely positioned to support their children’s learning in multiple settings. Despite this, much of the existing research on parental involvement tends to overlook the full spectrum of parents’ roles and contributions to their children’s education (Jackson, 2021).

Regarding educational attainment, the data show that parents’ academic levels significantly influence their involvement in the academic progress of their children. Research by Pinantoan (2023) revealed that parents with advanced degrees are 3.5 times more likely to provide guidance in basic academic subjects compared to parents with only a high school education. Similarly, parents with professional careers were found to be 2.4 times more likely to assist with basic math lessons (Langevine, 2020; Mata, Pedro, & Peixoto, 2021). Additionally, higher educational attainment is associated with greater parental encouragement and financial support for their children’s education (Reinke, Smith, & Herman, 2021).

Studies also show that as parents advance in their educational levels, they tend to send their children to school better prepared. For example, research by Tan, Lyu, and Peng (2021) found that parents with higher educational attainment are more likely to foster environments conducive to learning. Furthermore, between 1996 and 2007, the percentage of students from low-income families who were held back a grade reached 25%, compared to a much lower percentage among students from non-poor families (Puccioni, 2020). These findings highlight the unfortunate reality that students from middle or upper-class families, who typically have more academic and financial resources, are more likely to succeed academically.

As shown in the data, fathers perceived themselves as more involved than mothers in the academic lives of their Grade 11 children. This finding reflects broader societal shifts in the division of labor within Filipino families. Traditionally, mothers were considered the primary caregivers, but in recent years, fathers have become more engaged in housework and childcare, while mothers increasingly participate in paid work outside the home (Pew Research Center, 2023). The study by Gaurino (2021) demonstrated that while traditional roles remain somewhat intact, there is a growing convergence in parental roles, with fathers taking on more responsibilities traditionally associated with mothers.

Moreover, research by Garcia and de Guzman (2020) showed that although the roles of fathers and mothers are increasingly overlapping, mothers are still perceived as more responsive and supportive than fathers. In studies comparing parenting styles, mothers tend to be more authoritative, while fathers are often viewed as more authoritarian (Yaffe, 2020). This dynamic is consistent across different cultures, with research from over 15 countries confirming that mothers generally exhibit more controlling and demanding behaviors, while fathers tend to grant more autonomy (Yaffe, 2020). These patterns suggest that fathers, while increasingly involved, may still approach their children’s education differently from mothers.

Furthermore, studies highlight the importance of fathers’ involvement in their children’s academic pursuits, particularly in light of changing gender norms. A study by the Brigham Young University (BYU, 2020) found that fathers who exhibit negative aspects of traditional masculinity are less likely to be involved in their children’s education. As traditional masculine norms evolve, more fathers are embracing nurturing roles, which positively impacts their engagement with their children’s scholastic activities (Kolak, 2021).

Parents, particularly fathers, are becoming more aware of the influence that peer relationships and social emotional development have on their children’s academic success. Adolescence is a critical stage when children are highly influenced by their peers, and parents understand the importance of monitoring and guiding these relationships (Cabrera, 2021). They recognize that peer interactions can foster positive social-emotional skills such as empathy and cooperation, but can also contribute to negative behaviors like bullying (Wood, 2023). This heightened awareness has led fathers, especially in middle and upper-class families, to become more vigilant in supporting their children’s academic and social development, ensuring they are less influenced by negative peer pressure.

Fathers’ cognitive stimulation has also been found to have a strong influence on their children’s academic outcomes. Fathers who are more engaged in their children’s schooling tend to provide better behavioral guidance, which leads to improved academic performance (Kolak, 2021). When fathers actively model supportive behaviors, they not only strengthen their relationship with their children but also help them develop positive attitudes toward learning and academic achievement (Yaffe, 2020).

Significant Differences in Academic Performances

The next table presents the test summary for assessing significant differences in the academic performances of student respondents in terms of their GPA in the first semester of the SY 2022-2023. The first column contains the groups and the frequency counts of respondents. The second column contains the GPA of respondents in the first semester of the SY 2022-2023 from the official records of their advisers. The third column specifies the inferential statistically tests and the p values. The 4^th column contains the interpretation of the p value and the action or decision whether to reject or not to reject the null hypothesis. Additionally, the margin of error used in comparing p value results is 0.05 or 5%.

Table 4 Testing for Significant Differences – Academic Performances

Margin of error = 0.05

The results indicate a statistically significant difference in students’ academic performance based on gender, with female students outperforming their male counterparts (p = 0.015). However, no significant differences were observed for students’ religion, source of Junior High School (JHS) education, parents’ gender, parents’ religion, or parents’ educational attainment, as all p-values exceeded 0.05.

Globally, there is a well-documented gender gap in academic achievement, with females generally outperforming males in areas such as subject grades, high school graduation rates, and enrollment and completion rates at the tertiary level (Clark et al., 2021; Parker et al., 2021). Research suggests that the underlying reasons for this gap may be related to gendered socialization processes. Figueroa (2001) argues that boys, due to traditional socialization, tend to develop attitudes and behaviors that are less conducive to academic success. Boys, he notes, are often afforded more freedom than girls in terms of the activities they engage in and the way they approach tasks, which contrasts sharply with the structured and disciplined nature of classroom environments (Figueroa, 2021).

Supporting this argument, Mazjub and Rais (2010) suggest that boys often struggle with sustained focus and sitting still, which are essential behaviors for academic success. Many boys are also more inclined to engage in outdoor activities and sports, which can detract from their attention to academic work (Mazjub & Rais, 2010). According to Cobbett and Younger (2020), the masculinity-related mindset, which emphasizes toughness, rebellion, and sports, further exacerbates academic disengagement among boys. This mindset is often accompanied by anti-academic peer pressure, where being academically inclined is viewed as uncool or weak, leading to negative social pressures against academic engagement (Monceaux & Jewell, 2020).

Some researchers, such as Husband (2022), have suggested that gender differences in academic achievement may be partially explained by maturational differences, with boys typically developing more slowly than girls. These differences may impact literacy and other foundational academic competencies, placing boys at a disadvantage. Moreover, emerging findings in neuroscience support the idea that there are biological differences in the ways girls and boys learn, with boys often having distinct learning styles that may not be fully accommodated within traditional classroom settings (Hodgetts, 2021).

The structure and environment of schools may not be inherently conducive to the needs of male students. Many schools are organized in ways that favor more disciplined, structured, and controlled learning environments, which may conflict with the more active and sometimes rebellious tendencies of boys (Cobbett & Younger, 2020). In fact, research indicates that school disciplinary policies, which often result in suspensions or expulsions, disproportionately affect male students and minority groups. These punitive measures can further hinder boys’ academic development, particularly in foundational areas like literacy and numeracy (Husband, 2022; Kutnick, Jules, & Layne, 2020).

In terms of pedagogy, some scholars argue that the increasing feminization of education and curricula may be detrimental to boys’ academic progress. For example, Joseph, Ramsook, and Simonette (2021) suggest that traditional pedagogical methods and curricular content may not always resonate with boys’ interests or learning styles. Consequently, there is a growing call for a re-articulation of curricula that is more inclusive of boys’ perspectives and needs (Bailey, 2020; Cobbett & Younger, 2020). Furthermore, the lack of male role models in educational settings has been highlighted as a critical factor in male underachievement, with some studies advocating for greater male representation in teaching positions (Joseph, 2021; Mazjub & Rais, 2020).

However, not all arguments supporting gender-specific interventions have been substantiated by recent research. For instance, studies from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) examining teacher-student gender matching in 15 OECD countries found no significant evidence that matching teachers’ and students’ genders led to improved academic outcomes for boys (Cho, 2021). This suggests that while gendered factors may play a role in academic achievement, teacher-student gender matching is unlikely to be a comprehensive solution for addressing male underachievement in schools.

Table 5 Testing for Significant Relationships

Testing for the significant relationship between parental involvement, as perceived by parents, and students’ academic performance showed a p-value greater than 0.05, indicating no significant relationship. Similarly, testing for the significant relationship between parental involvement, as perceived by students, and students’ academic performance also yielded a p-value greater than 0.05. Furthermore, testing for the significant relationship between parental involvement, as perceived by both parents and students, and students’ academic performance resulted in a p-value greater than 0.05.

Education is a critical tool for personal and societal progress, as it helps individuals develop their abilities and contributes to the advancement of society (Jelilov, Aleshinloye, & Önder, 2021). It affects all aspects of a society and is influenced by various stakeholders, including parents, teachers, students, administrators, and community members (Kayani et al., 2021). The home environment plays a crucial role in a child’s educational journey, with parents being the first teachers and the home serving as the first school (Chandra, 2021). Barnes (2021) reports that despite common beliefs, parental education, social status, and ethnicity do not necessarily influence the level of involvement parents have in their children’s academic endeavors. As the primary role models and key figures in socializing children, parents should actively engage and support their children’s academic progress (Amponsah, Milledzi, Twum Ampofo, & Gyambrah, 2021).

On the other hand, Shahzadi and Ahmad (2021) describe academic performance as a reflection of students’ comprehension and competence, often assessed through exams or other formal evaluations. Parental involvement is consistently identified as a key factor influencing students’ academic success. In contrast to the findings of this study, research by Amponsah et al. (2021) revealed a positive relationship between parental involvement and students’ academic performance. Additionally, parental involvement has been recognized as a strong determinant of academic achievement in high school students (Vijaya, 2021).

While parental involvement is important, other factors also contribute to academic performance. Gender differences, for instance, have been extensively studied. Clark, Lee, Goodman, and Yacco (2021) found that males tend to underperform compared to females in terms of academic achievement, with boys generally lagging behind girls in subject grades, graduation rates, and post-secondary enrollment. Figueroa (2021) suggests that socialization processes may play a role in this gender gap, with boys often developing attitudes and behaviors that are less conducive to academic success. He posits that boys, unlike girls, are often given more freedom to make their own choices, which contrasts with the structured expectations of the classroom environment.

In addition to gender, attention and personal development are significant factors influencing academic performance. Mazjub and Rais (2021) and Cobbett and Younger (2021) have emphasized the challenges that boys face in maintaining focus, which is essential for academic success. Moreover, recent studies in neuroscience have supported the idea that biological differences in the ways boys and girls learn contribute to the academic disparities observed between the genders (Hodgetts, 2021). The process of socialization also affects academic outcomes, with educational systems often being more aligned with the needs and tendencies of girls than boys (Cobbett & Younger, 2021; Figueroa, 2021).

Pedagogy is another crucial factor affecting students’ academic performance. Some researchers argue that the feminization of curricula and teaching methods may hinder male students’ academic achievement. Joseph, Ramsook, and Simonette (2021) advocate for a more gender-inclusive curriculum that considers boys’ learning preferences and needs. Similarly, Bailey (2021) and Cobbett and Younger (2021) suggest that schools should adopt pedagogical approaches that resonate more with boys, emphasizing engagement and relevance to their lives.

Studies have shown that multiple factors, social, psychological, economic, environmental, and personal, affect students’ academic performance, with the significance of these factors varying from person to person (Ogunsola et al., 2021). Since the study is set in a boarding school environment, where students receive ample social support, these factors may play an even more significant role in influencing academic performance. Moreover, individual differences among students continue to impact academic outcomes, as each student’s background and personal circumstances play a crucial role in shaping their educational experience (Jilardi-Damavandi et al., 2021).

Classroom settings also play a significant role in student performance. Teachers who effectively engage students using a variety of instructional strategies can foster better academic outcomes. According to Frufonga et al. (2021), teachers who are skilled in facilitating learning through diverse methods and approaches tend to see higher levels of student performance.

Testing for Moderating Effects

The table below presents the moderating effects of parental and student profile characteristics on the relationship between perceived parental involvement and students’ academic performance. The first column contains the tests used for each group. The second column presents the values of the tests, and the third column offers an interpretation of the results. These moderating effects help to further understand the factors that may influence the impact of parental involvement on student academic outcomes.

Table 6 Hypotheses Testing Summary – Significant Influence and Moderation Effects

The table above shows that the p-value for the presence of student gender as a moderator of the relationship between parental involvement and academic performance is less than 0.05, indicating a significant moderating effect. In contrast, other tested moderators—such as parents’ gender, parents’ religion, parents’ educational attainment, students’ religion, and students’ source of JHS education—all have p-values greater than 0.05, suggesting no significant moderating effects for these variables.

The finding that gender moderates the effect of parental involvement on academic performance is not surprising. As reported in global educational statistics, there is a well-established gender gap in academic achievement, with boys generally lagging behind girls in areas such as subject grades, high school graduation rates, and postsecondary enrollment and completion (Jelilov et al., 2021; You, 2021). The role of gender as a moderating factor in academic performance has been the subject of extensive research. For example, Mazjub and Rais (2021) found that some boys struggle to focus for extended periods, a behavior necessary for academic success. These authors suggest that boys’ preference for outdoor activities and sports often competes with their attention to academics. Cobbett and Younger (2021) argue that certain masculine norms may promote disengagement from school, with behaviors such as risk-taking and resistance to authority leading to disciplinary issues like suspension. Monceaux and Jewell (2021) also highlight how the stereotype of masculinity, which often associates “maleness” with toughness and rebellion rather than academic excellence, can lead to peer pressure against academic achievement among boys.

Some researchers point to a maturational hypothesis to explain the gender differences in academic performance, suggesting that boys develop at a slower rate than girls, which may contribute to their struggles with literacy and other foundational academic skills (Mazjub & Rais, 2021). Moreover, recent findings in neuroscience provide evidence supporting the notion that biological differences in brain development contribute to the different ways boys and girls learn (Hodgetts, 2021). This may partly explain why boys often face challenges in academic environments that require focused attention and sustained intellectual engagement (Husband, 2021).

In terms of pedagogy, some studies suggest that the feminization of school environments and curricula may not support male students’ learning needs. Joseph, Ramsook, and Simonette (2021) argue that the traditional educational framework, which often prioritizes verbal and collaborative learning styles, may disadvantage boys, who tend to benefit from more active, hands-on learning approaches. The lack of male role models in the educational system is another factor that has been identified as contributing to male underachievement. Joseph (2021) and Mazjub and Rais (2021) both emphasize that the absence of male teachers and mentors in schools may leave male students without the guidance they need to succeed academically.

In summary, gender differences in academic performance are influenced by a range of factors, including developmental, social, and pedagogical influences. While parental involvement is crucial to academic success, these gendered dynamics highlight the importance of considering how gender-specific needs and challenges may moderate the impact of parental engagement on students’ academic outcomes.

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This section of the research paper shows the summary of the findings of the study. It is presented in word-based form. Moreover, conclusions are presented based upon the findings of this academic endeavor. Also, recommendations are made as anchored on the findings and conclusions conscripted.

Summary of Findings

1. Parental Involvement Levels:

The combined average score for parental involvement, as perceived by both parents and students, is 4.43, which falls into the “moderately high” category. The individual mean scores are also categorized as “moderately high”—students’ mean score is 4.38, and parents’ mean score is 4.48.

In the student category, non-SDA students reported the highest level of parental involvement, followed by those who completed their Junior High School (JHS) education at government schools, and then female students.

Among parents, fathers reported the highest involvement, followed by professional parents, and then non-SDA parents.

When categorized by the dimensions of parental involvement, the ranking based on mean scores is as follows: Financing (1st), Parenting and Volunteering (2nd as a tie), and Communicating (3rd).

The top-rated involvement indicators from the students’ perspective include support for school clothing, school supplies (pens, paper, and pencils), and allowances for extracurricular activities. From the parents’ perspective, these same three indicators were rated the highest.

The lowest-rated indicators for students included parents’ attendance during card release, provision of a specific study area at home, and volunteering services at school. Parents, on the other hand, rated the provision of a study area at home, attendance at PTA meetings, and attendance during grade distribution activities as the least emphasized aspects of involvement.

2. Students’ Academic Performance

The overall average GPA for students during the first grading period was 90.38, which is classified as “Outstanding.”

Eight out of 14 groups achieved “Outstanding” academic performance, while five groups had “Very Satisfactory” performance. One group, composed of students who graduated from a non-SDA private school, was excluded from the analysis due to insufficient data.

The top-performing student groups were those who had their JHS education in another SDA school, followed by female students and those with professional parents.

The lowest academic performers were students from non-SDA parents, male students, and students whose parents were not professionals.

3. Significant Differences in Parental Involvement

Parental involvement, as perceived by parents, showed significant differences based on parent’s gender (p = 0.005, with fathers reporting more involvement than mothers) and parental educational attainment (p = 0.029, with professional parents reporting higher involvement than non-professional parents).

Parental involvement, as perceived by students, showed no significant differences based on student’s gender, student’s religion, or student’s source of JHS education (all p > 0.05).

In terms of combined parental involvement (both parent and student perceptions), no significant differences were found based on the aforementioned variables (all p > 0.05).

4. Significant Differences in Students’ Academic Performance

There was a significant difference in students’ academic performance based on student’s gender (p = 0.015), with female students outperforming male students.

No significant differences were found in students’ academic performance based on student’s religion, student’s source of JHS education, parents’ gender, parents’ religion, or parents’ educational attainment (all p > 0.05).

5. Moderating Effects of Parental and Student Characteristics

Student’s gender significantly moderated the relationship between parental involvement and academic performance (p < 0.05). Parental involvement had a stronger positive impact on female students’ academic outcomes than on male students’ performance.

No significant moderating effects were found for other factors, including parent’s gender, parent’s religion, parent’s educational attainment, student’s religion, or student’s source of JHS education (all p > 0.05).

Conclusions

1. While parental involvement is generally “moderately high,” there is a need for more inclusive strategies to engage all families, particularly in SDA contexts, to strengthen their academic support for students.
2. Fathers and professional parents are more involved in their children’s education, suggesting the need for targeted interventions to encourage greater engagement from mothers and non-professional parents.
3. Female students demonstrate better academic performance than male students, indicating that gender plays a role in how parental involvement impacts academic success.
4. Parental involvement significantly enhances students’ academic performance, with female students benefiting more, emphasizing the importance of gender-sensitive support strategies.
5. Religious affiliation and the type of JHS education do not significantly affect parental involvement or student performance, suggesting that interventions should focus on more impactful factors like gender and parental background.
6. Students from non-SDA backgrounds, male students, and those with non-professional parents would benefit from targeted interventions that enhance parental involvement and academic performance.

Recommendations

1. For Student Researchers

Future student researchers should explore how different parental involvement dimensions, such as communication and volunteering, specifically affect various student groups. Additionally, studying how parental involvement strategies can be tailored for male students, non-SDA families, and non-professional parents could deepen understanding of the factors that foster greater academic engagement.

2. For Learners

Students should be made more aware of the positive impact that parental involvement can have on their academic performance. Initiatives that encourage students to actively involve their parents in school activities—both academic and extracurricular—could be integrated into school programs, helping students recognize the importance of home-school collaboration.

3. For Parents

Parents should be encouraged to engage more actively in their children’s education, especially in the areas of school attendance, volunteering, and fostering a conducive study environment at home. Training programs and workshops should be developed to inform parents of the crucial role they play in their children’s academic success and provide them with practical strategies for becoming more involved.

4. For Teachers

Teachers can use the study’s findings to develop and implement strategies that encourage greater parental involvement in the classroom. This can include offering workshops, sending regular updates to parents, and providing opportunities for them to volunteer at school events, ensuring that parental involvement is sustained throughout the academic year.

5. For Guidance Coordinators

Guidance counselors can use this research to design programs that bridge the gap between home and school. By engaging parents more actively in their children’s personal and academic development, guidance coordinators can create a more supportive environment that addresses the social, emotional, and academic needs of students.

6. For Principals:

School leaders should use the insights from this study to assess the effectiveness of current parent engagement strategies and make adjustments to improve school policies and programs. Principals should prioritize creating a school culture that fosters collaboration between parents and educators, particularly by addressing barriers to parental participation and enhancing outreach efforts.

7. For Future Researchers

Future research should build on this study by exploring other variables that may influence the relationship between parental involvement and student performance, such as parental socioeconomic status, the impact of digital communication on parental engagement, and the role of community involvement in enhancing academic success. Investigating parental involvement in different educational settings, such as urban versus rural schools, could also provide valuable comparative insights.

PROGRAM RECOMMENDATIONS

Title of the Program:

“Empowering Parental Engagement: A Collaborative Training Program to Enhance Students’ Academic Performance”

Executive Summary:

This program seeks to address the significant role of parental involvement in students’ academic performance by designing and implementing a collaborative training program. The initiative will equip parents, teachers, and school stakeholders with strategies to strengthen partnerships, improve student outcomes, and foster a culture of shared responsibility for education. The program will include workshops, resources, and follow-up activities aimed at building an inclusive and supportive learning environment.

Introduction:

Parental involvement is a critical factor in enhancing students’ academic success and overall development. However, many parents face challenges—ranging from time constraints to lack of familiarity with school curricula—that prevent them from engaging fully in their children’s education. The Empowering Families for Student Success: A Collaborative Training Program on Parental Involvement seeks to address these challenges by equipping parents with practical skills, building stronger parent-school partnerships, and fostering supportive home environments that nurture both academic and socio-emotional growth. Through workshops, support groups, interactive activities, and community events, the program provides parents with strategies for supporting academic skills, developing students’ resilience, and maintaining effective communication with educators. This structured approach is designed to create a network of support among families, schools, and the wider community, promoting a collaborative educational environment where students can thrive academically and personally.

Objectives and Goals:

• Enhance parental involvement in their children’s education.
• Strengthen parent-teacher collaboration.
• Improve students’ academic performance and overall well-being.
• Provide parents and educators with actionable strategies for student success.

Program Description

• Target Audience:

1. Parents of students in Junior High School and Senior High School.
2. Teachers and school administrators.

• Program Components:

1. Workshops: Sessions on effective parenting strategies, communication, and academic support organized into modules with targeted themes.
2. Resources: Handouts, guides, and digital tools for parents and educators.
3. Collaborative Meetings: Regular discussions between parents and teachers to share progress and challenges.
4. Duration: Once a month, two-hour sessions
5. Topics Covered:
   • Understanding Academic Milestones: Overview of the academic year, important assessments, and developmental milestones for different grade levels.
   • Homework Help and Study Skills: Techniques for providing effective homework assistance, fostering organizational skills, and creating conducive study environments.
   • Behavioral and Emotional Support: Strategies for supporting students’ mental and emotional well-being, including active listening and positive reinforcement.
   • Effective Communication with Teachers: Guidance on productive teacher-parent communication, addressing concerns, and staying informed about student progress.
6. Outcomes: Increased knowledge and confidence among parents, fostering consistency in academic support and relationship-building between families and school staff.

• Approach/Methodology:

1. Use evidence-based practices for parental involvement like small groups, per-support groups where parents can share challenges, insights, and strategies with each other, facilitate by school counselors or educators.
2. Employ interactive and participatory methods such as role-playing, group discussions, and case studies.

• Timeline:

1. Phase 1: Needs Assessment (Month 1)
2. Phase 2: Program Development (Month 2)
3. Phase 3: Implementation (Months 3-5)
4. Phase 4: Evaluation and Follow-Up (Month 6)

• Resources Needed:

1. Training materials (workbooks, slides, online tools).
2. Venue for workshops.
3. Facilitators and trainers.

Implementation Plan

• Activities and Tasks:

1. Conduct surveys and interviews to assess parental involvement needs.
2. Develop training modules and materials.
3. Schedule and conduct workshops.
4. Monitor participation and collect feedback.

• Staffing and Responsibilities:

1. Program Coordinator: Oversees the project.
2. Trainers: Deliver workshops and training sessions.
3. School Representatives: Act as liaisons with parents.

• Partnerships and Collaborations:

1. Local schools and parent-teacher associations (PTAs).
2. Community organizations supporting education.

Evaluation and Monitoring

• Evaluation Plan:

1. Quarterly parent surveys: Short surveys to assess the program’s impact on their involvement and their child’s academic performance
2. Analysis of academic performance data before and after implementation.

• Feedback Mechanisms:

1. Regular feedback sessions with parents and teachers.
2. Student feedback: Anonymous feedback sessions to gauge the perceived effects of parental involvement on academic and emotional well-being.
3. Performance Metrics: Tracking student academic performance, attendance, and engagement before and after program implementation.
4. Anonymous suggestion boxes and online surveys.

Sustainability Plan

• Sustainability Strategy:

1. Develop a “Train the Trainer” model to empower educators and parent leaders to continue the program.
2. Establish a dedicated resource hub with online materials for long-term use.

• Long-term Impact:

1. Increased parental engagement in education.
2. Improved academic outcomes for students.
3. Strengthened school-home partnerships.

Budget and Resources

• Detailed Budget:

Training materials:                                         2,000.00

Facilitator fees:                                               3,000.00

Venue costs:                                                    2,000.00

Miscellaneous (marketing, snacks): (100.00 per head)            100.00

• Resource Allocation:

Ensure funding prioritizes training resources and facilitator expertise.

Risk Assessment and Mitigation

• Potential Risks:

1. Low parent participation: Lack of time or interest from parents
2. Resistance to new strategies by stakeholders: Hesitation to adopt new practices
3. Limited funding or resources to sustain the program

Mitigation Strategies:

1. Offer flexible training schedules (weekend sessions).
2. Promote the program using effective communication campaigns. Involve parents and teachers in the planning phase to ensure relevance.
3. Secure partnerships for additional funding. Seek grants or sponsorships from local businesses or education-focused NGOs

Conclusion

This collaborative training program aims to empower parents with the tools to actively support their children’s academic journeys. By fostering a strong parent-school connection and providing practical training, the program is designed to positively impact student performance, reinforce Adventist educational values, and create a more integrated learning environment that supports every student’s growth and success.

Supporting Documents

1. Surveys and assessments of parental involvement.

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Instructions:

This survey aims to understand how parents are involved in their child’s education and identify areas for improvement. Your responses are confidential and will only be used for program development purposes.

BASIC INFORMATION

1. Parent’s Name: (Optional) ________________________________
2. Student’s Grade Level: __________________________________
3. Relationship to Student:

                        Mother

                        Father

                        Guardian

                        Other (please specify): ___________________________

4. Highest Educational Attainment:

                         Elementary

                        High School

                        College

                      Graduate/Postgraduate

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN EDUCATION

How often do you engage in the following activities?

(1 = Never, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Often, 5 = Always)

Barriers To Involvement

What makes it difficult for you to be involved in your child’s education? (Check all that apply)

Lack of time due to work or other responsibilities

Limited understanding of academic subjects

Language or cultural barriers

Poor communication from the school

Lack of resources (e.g. internet, study materials)

Other (Please specify): ___________________________

Suggestions For Improvement

1. How can the school help you better support your child’s education?

_________________________________________________

2. Do you have any additional comments or suggestions?

__________________________________________________

Self-Assessment Of Parental Engagement

Rate your current level of involvement in your child’s education.

Very Low

Low

Moderate

High

Very High

Optional: If you’d like to participate in future workshops or training sessions, please provide your contact information:
Name: ____________________________________________
Phone/Email: _______________________________________

• Sample training materials and modules.

Module 1: Understanding Parental Involvement

Duration: 1 hour

Learning Objectives:

• Define parental involvement and its importance in a student’s academic journey.
• Identify the key benefits of active parental involvement.

Content:

1. What is Parental Involvement?
   • Overview of parental roles in academic support.
   • Types of involvement: at-home learning support, school engagement, and communication with teachers.

2. Benefits of Parental Involvement:
   • Improved academic performance.
   • Better social and emotional development.
   • Strengthened parent-child relationship.

Activity:

• Brainstorming Session: Ask participants to list ways they currently support their child’s education. Share examples and categorize them into “at-home” and “at-school” activities.

Module 2: Strategies For Effective Parental Involvement

Duration: 1.5 hours

Learning Objectives:

• Learn practical strategies for supporting children at home and school.
• Understand how to build strong communication with teachers.

Content:

1. At-Home Strategies:
   • Creating a study-friendly environment.
   • Setting a consistent homework schedule.
   • Encouraging reading and curiosity.
2. At-School Strategies:
   • Attending parent-teacher conferences.
   • Volunteering for school activities.
   • Engaging in school decision-making (e.g., joining the PTA).
3. Communication with Teachers:
   • Tips for effective parent-teacher communication.
   • Using tools like email, apps, or meetings to stay updated.

Activity:

• Role-Playing Exercise: In pairs, practice a mock parent-teacher conference. One participant plays the teacher, and the other plays the parent. Focus on discussing the child’s academic performance constructively.

Module 3: Overcoming Barriers To Involvement

Duration: 1 hour

Learning Objectives:

Identify common barriers to parental involvement.

Develop solutions to address these barriers.

Content:

1. Common Barriers:
   • Lack of time.
   • Limited understanding of academic subjects.
   • Poor communication between parents and schools.
2. Solutions:
   • Time management strategies for busy parents.
   • Utilizing school-provided resources (e.g., guides, apps).
   • Building trust and partnerships with teachers.

Activity:

Group Discussion: Break into small groups and discuss challenges participants face in staying involved. Share solutions within the group and present key ideas to everyone.

Module 4: Developing A Parental Involvement Action Plan

Duration: 1 hour

Learning Objectives:

• Create a personalized action plan for supporting children academically.

Content:

1. Setting Goals for Involvement:
   • Short-term goals (e.g., helping with daily homework).
   • Long-term goals (e.g., attending school events regularly).
2. Monitoring Progress:
   • Using checklists to track involvement.
   • Scheduling regular check-ins with teachers.

Activity:

Action Plan Worksheet: Provide a simple worksheet for parents to outline specific goals, activities, and timelines for involvement. For example:

Materials Needed:

1. Presentation Slides: Key points and visuals summarizing each module.
2. Handouts:
   • List of parental involvement strategies.
   • Tips for effective parent-teacher communication.
   • Action plan templates.
3. Stationery: Pens, notebooks, and printed worksheets.
4. Optional: Access to a projector for slide presentations.

Follow-Up Activities:

1. Provide participants with a contact list of school representatives for further questions.
2. Share a summary report of the workshop with participants via email.
3. Schedule a follow-up session to review progress and share success stories.

Problem Statement

Despite the proven impact of parental engagement on students’ academic outcomes, many families face barriers such as lack of knowledge, resources, or time to effectively support their children. Schools often lack structured programs to empower parents with the skills and tools necessary to positively impact their children’s education.

Proposed Solution

A collaborative training program focused on empowering parents to engage effectively with their children’s academic journey, thereby bridging the performance gap and improving overall educational outcomes.

REFERENCES

1. Agustin, L., Reyes, M., & Mendoza, C. (2021). Parental involvement and its influence on academic achievement in the Philippine education system. Philippine Journal of Education, 98(4), 265-277.
2. Amponsah, M., Milledzi, M., Twum Ampofo, F., & Gyambrah, S. (2021). Parental involvement and its effect on students’ academic performance: A case study. International Journal of Educational Research, 60(2), 124-134.
3. Arboleda, M., & Chua, L. M. (2022). Parental involvement and academic success in Adventist schools in the Visayas: A closer look at the collaborative model. Journal of Education and Community Development, 28(3), 215-229.
4. Aubrey, C., Lord, A., & McCartney, K. (2020). Vygotsky and the social context of cognitive development: Implications for educational practice. Educational Psychology Review, 32(3), 577-596.
5. Azhar, M. H., Saeed, R., & Karim, A. (2020). The role of socio-economic status in students’ academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(4), 312-325.
6. Baeck, U. (2020). The impact of parents’ educational background on their involvement in school activities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(4), 546-558.
7. Bailey, R. (2020). Rethinking curriculum design for boys: A study of pedagogy and engagement. Journal of Educational Reform, 45(2), 138-151.
8. Baker, C. A., Montalvo, G. P., & Perry, P. D. (2022). Parental involvement and academic achievement: A cross-cultural perspective. Educational Review, 45(3), 314-327.
9. Baker, D. P., Benassi, M., & Penczek, M. (2022). Family engagement and academic achievement: A global perspective. Journal of Education, 5(1), 45-56.
10. Barnes, R. (2021). The impact of parental involvement on student achievement: A socio-cultural perspective. Journal of Educational Psychology, 118(3), 487-501.
11. Bauer, M. (2019). The Role of Faith-Based Education in the Philippines: A Case Study of Adventist Schools. Journal of Education and Religion, 38(2), 155-169.
12. Berk, L. E. (2020). Child Development (10th ed.). Pearson Education.
13. Berndt, T. J. (2020). The influence of peer relationships on academic achievement. Child Development Perspectives, 14(1), 35-41.
14. Cabrera, N. (2021). The role of fathers in children’s academic and social development: Implications for educational success. Journal of Child Development, 85(3), 305-320.
15. Caldwell, B., & Little, A. (2022). Pandemic disruptions and parental involvement in school activities. Educational Studies, 48(1), 12-24.
16. Chandra, R. (2021). The role of parents in educational development. International Journal of Education and Learning, 12(1), 45-57.
17. Cho, S. (2021). Gender matching in teaching: A global study on its impact on student achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 113(4), 587-600.
18. Clark, A., Lee, M., Goodman, R., & Yacco, M. (2021). The gender gap in academic performance: A comprehensive analysis. Journal of Gender Studies in Education, 29(2), 102-118.
19. Cobbett, M., & Younger, M. (2020). Masculinity, education, and academic disengagement: A review of recent findings. Gender and Education, 32(3), 331-345.
20. Coleman, J. S. (2021). Social capital in the creation of human capital. In Social theory and education (pp. 35-49). University Press.
21. Cooper, H., Cordova, D., & Jackson, M. (2020). Parental involvement and student academic success in elementary and secondary education: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Research, 113(5), 514-526.
22. Crisostomo, L., & Hernandez, D. (2021). Gender and educational involvement: Implications for academic performance in Filipino students. Asian Journal of Educational Research, 10(3), 98-110.
23. Crozier, G. (2020). Parental involvement and educational achievement: Understanding the student perspective. Educational Studies, 46(1), 41-56.
24. Diseth, A., & Martinsen, Ø. L. (2020). The role of parental education and involvement in children’s academic achievement. Educational Psychology Review, 32(2), 213-225.
25. Dizon, G. A., & Pahila, A. T. (2020). Parental Engagement in Adventist Education: A Comprehensive Review. Philippine Journal of Educational Research, 11(1), 45-59.
26. Dizon, M., Mendoza, S., & Tacbas, R. (2022). Parental communication and its role in student academic motivation. Philippine Journal of School Management, 14(2), 75-88.
27. Eccles, J. S., & Harold, R. D. (2020). Parent-school involvement in the academic achievement of adolescents. Educational Psychology Review, 32(2), 1-18.
28. Epstein, J. L. (2010). School, family, and community partnerships: Preparing educators and improving schools. Westview Press.
29. Epstein, J. L. (2020). School, family, and community partnerships: Preparing educators and improving schools (3rd ed.). Westview Press.
30. Fan, W., & Chen, M. (2021). Parental involvement and students’ academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 33(4), 929-951.
31. Figueroa, M. (2021). Gender and academic performance: The role of socialization in shaping educational outcomes. Educational Review, 73(2), 184-197.
32. Figueroa, M. (2021). The gender gap in education: Understanding boys’ disengagement from learning. Educational Psychology International, 41(2), 145-159.
33. Fitzgerald, M. A., Larson, D., & Montgomery, J. L. (2021). Volunteer motivation and engagement in educational settings: A multidimensional approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 113(3), 563-578.
34. Fitzgerald, M., Pusser, B., & McDaniel, R. (2021). The role of parental motivation in school involvement: A volunteer perspective. Journal of Educational Research, 113(3), 161-172.
35. Frufonga, A., Taroy, M. J., & Cuenca, V. (2020). Teaching strategies and student outcomes: A study on the impact of teacher practices. Journal of Teaching and Teacher Education, 40(2), 121-135.
36. Frufonga, P., Magalona, A., & Salgado, M. (2021). The role of teaching strategies in improving student performance. Journal of Educational Strategies, 55(3), 233-247.
37. Garcia, A., & de Guzman, A. (2020). Gender roles and parenting: A comparative study of fathers and mothers. Gender Studies Journal, 12(1), 50-67.
38. Gaurino, J. (2021). Gender differences in parenting styles: A cross-cultural perspective. International Journal of Parenting and Family Therapy, 23(2), 72-89.
39. Gilbert, T. (2020). The importance of student performance in educational institutions: A systemic review. Educational Studies Journal, 54(3), 128-142.
40. Gutman, L. M., & Akerman, L. (2020). Parental involvement in children’s education: The role of parental engagement and communication in promoting academic success. Educational Review, 72(4), 456-469. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2020.1790123
41. Hernandez, R. M., & Garcia, F. L. (2019). Exploring the Role of Parental Involvement in Private Christian Schools: Case Studies from the Philippines. Journal of Christian Education, 49(3), 130-145.
42. Hill, N. E., & Tyson, D. F. (2020). Parental involvement in academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 31(4), 735-758.
43. Hodgetts, P. (2021). Neuroscientific insights into gender differences in learning. Learning and Individual Differences, 90, 102040.
44. Hodgetts, S. (2021). Biological bases for gender differences in education: What neuroscience tells us. Journal of Neuroscience and Education, 9(1), 12-25.
45. Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., Walker, J. M., & Sandler, H. M. (2021). Parental involvement and student achievement: A meta-analytic review. Educational Psychology, 41(5), 469-485.
46. Hornby, G., & Lafaele, R. (2021). Barriers to parental involvement in education: An update. Educational Review, 73(2), 145-161.
47. Husband, T. (2021). Understanding the neurological basis for gender differences in learning. Learning and Individual Differences, 89, 102040.
48. Husband, T. (2022). Gender differences in academic achievement: The role of neuroscience and learning styles. Learning and Individual Differences, 89, 102036.
49. Husband, T. (2022). Understanding the neurological basis for gender differences in learning. Learning and Individual Differences, 90, 102040.
50. Jelilov, G., Aleshinloye, A., & Önder, A. (2021). Educational systems and societal progress: The roles of schools and teachers. Educational Studies Journal, 44(3), 150-162.
51. Jelilov, G., Aleshinloye, A., & Önder, A. (2021). Educational systems and societal progress: The roles of schools and teachers. Educational Studies Journal, 44(3), 150-162.
52. Jeynes, W. H. (2022). The relationship between parental involvement and academic performance: A meta-analysis of the research. Educational Psychology Review, 34(1), 81-109.
53. Jilardi-Damavandi, A., & Mokhtari, H. (2021). Individual differences and academic performance in educational settings: A review. Educational Research Quarterly, 44(1), 34-45.
54. Joseph, D. (2021). Masculine norms and academic performance: Reframing curriculum design for boys. Journal of Gender and Education, 19(4), 412-425.
55. Joseph, D., Ramsook, R., & Simonette, S. (2021). Pedagogical implications for boys’ education: A gender-responsive curriculum. International Journal of Educational Leadership, 18(4), 239-252.
56. Joseph, D., Ramsook, R., & Simonette, S. (2021). Reframing curriculum design for boys: A critical review. Journal of Gender and Curriculum, 19(4), 412-425.
57. Joseph, D., Ramsook, R., & Simonette, S. (2021). Reframing curriculum design for boys: A critical review. Journal of Gender and Curriculum, 19(4), 412-425.
58. Jung, H. Y., & Zhang, Y. (2023). Exploring parental involvement in education: The pandemic impact on student performance. Education and Development, 44(1), 76-92.
59. Kayani, A., Akbar, A., Faisal, S., Kayani, Z., & Ghuman, M. (2021). The influence of parental involvement on academic success: A systematic review. Educational Research International, 14(5), 89-102.
60. Knapp, M. L., & Vangelisti, A. L. (2020). Interpersonal communication and human relationships (8th ed.). Pearson.
61. Knapp, M. S. (2022). The stages of parent-child relationships and their educational impact. Journal of Family Studies, 41(4), 392-404.
62. Kolak, A. (2021). Fathers’ involvement in children’s learning: Cognitive stimulation and academic success. Journal of Family Studies, 34(4), 433-445.
63. Kutnick, P., Jules, V., & Layne, L. (2020). The disproportionate impact of school discipline on male students: A socio-educational analysis. International Journal of Sociology of Education, 12(2), 105-121.
64. Lacuesta, D. M., & Sinay, L. V. (2020). Faith and Learning: Parental Involvement in Adventist Secondary Schools in the Philippines. Asian Journal of Education and Learning, 8(4), 250-265.
65. Lam, A., & Lantican, E. A. (2018). Adventist Schools and Parental Involvement: A Look at the Western Visayas Region. Journal of Religious Education, 35(2), 77-90.
66. Langevine, M. (2020). The impact of parental education on student academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(4), 322-336.
67. Lara, M., Gonzalez, P., & Sanchez, R. (2021). The impact of parental support on academic success: A review of recent studies. International Journal of Educational Psychology, 12(2), 121-137.
68. LaRocque, M., Kleiman, I., & Darling, J. R. (2011). Parental involvement in children’s education: An ecological systems perspective. Review of Educational Research, 81(3), 351-383.
69. Lee, J. S., & Bowen, N. K. (2020). Parental involvement, cultural capital, and academic achievement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 42(3), 314-335.
70. Mata, P., Pedro, J., & Peixoto, M. (2021). Parental educational background and student success: A study on the effects of professional parents. Educational Research Quarterly, 49(3), 215-229.
71. Matejevic, M., Jovanovic, D., & Jovanovic, I. (2020). The impact of socio-economic status on parental involvement in education: A comparative study. International Journal of Educational Research, 52(3), 367-379.
72. Mazjub, H., & Rais, K. (2010). Gender, maturity, and learning: Understanding the academic challenges of boys. Gender and Development, 19(3), 375-389.
73. Mazjub, H., & Rais, K. (2021). Cognitive development and academic performance: Gender-based perspectives. Journal of Educational Psychology, 45(2), 130-142.
74. Mazjub, H., & Rais, K. (2021). Cognitive development and academic performance: Gender-based perspectives. Journal of Educational Psychology, 45(2), 130-142.
75. McLeod, S. (2022). The role of parental involvement in academic achievement. Educational Psychology Review, 34(2), 279-295.
76. Monceaux, M., & Jewell, L. (2020). Masculinity and academic disengagement: The cultural forces shaping boys’ academic trajectories. Educational Studies Quarterly, 15(1), 25-39.
77. Monceaux, R., & Jewell, M. (2021). The role of masculinity in academic disengagement among boys. Journal of Adolescent Studies, 29(2), 155-167.
78. Muth, J. F. (2021). Rational expectations theory and the role of parental expectations in educational outcomes. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 35(3), 45-65. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.35.3.45
79. Nierva, F. R. (2021). The effects of parental involvement on academic performance: Evidence from a Philippine setting. Philippine Journal of Education, 94(2), 119-132.
80. Ochoa, F., & Torre, L. (2023). Changing family dynamics and the role of parents in children’s education. Asian Journal of Family Studies, 18(1), 42-55.
81. Ogunsola, A., Ayotunde, B., & Olorunfemi, A. (2020). Social, psychological, and economic factors affecting student performance in Nigeria: An empirical study. African Educational Review, 7(3), 198-212.
82. Ogunsola, L., Adebayo, I., Adepoju, T., & Olowokere, A. (2021). Determinants of academic performance in secondary school students. Journal of Educational Development, 22(6), 234-249.
83. Olsen, D. S. (2020). The role of parental involvement in the academic success of students in Seventh-day Adventist schools in the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Educational Leadership, 32(2), 41-57.
84. Palinova, E. (2018). Time-use patterns of fathers and mothers: Changes in the last five decades. Journal of Social Science Studies, 29(2), 18-33.
85. Parker, D., Van Zanden, J., & Parker, M. (2018). The gender gap in education: A global overview. International Review of Education, 64(4), 475-493.
86. Pavalache, M., & Tirdia, C. (2020). The role of family involvement in the academic success of students: Evidence from the Philippines. Asian Journal of Educational Research, 18(3), 210-224. https://doi.org/10.1177/2346342X20949257
87. Pena, D. C. (2020). Parental involvement and children’s academic achievement in elementary schools: A case study. Educational Research Quarterly, 44(1), 55-69.
88. Peña, R. V. (2018). Holistic Education and Parental Engagement: Enhancing the Academic Success of Students in Adventist Schools. Journal of Philippine Educational Leadership, 27(1), 115-130.
89. Perry, N. E., & Vygotsky, L. S. (2020). Sociocultural theory and its application in education. Educational Psychologist, 55(4), 301-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2020.1831214
90. Peters, M., Seed, R., Goldstein, M., & Coleman, E. (2021). Parental involvement, school engagement, and academic achievement: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 113(5), 787-804. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000427
91. Pew Research Center. (2023). Changing dynamics in family roles: A global comparison. Pew Research Center Report.
92. Pinantoan, A. (2023). The effect of parental educational attainment on children’s academic guidance. Journal of Educational Sociology, 15(2), 101-113.
93. Pinantoan, G. M. (2021). The role of parents in shaping academic and spiritual outcomes in Seventh-day Adventist schools. International Journal of Christian Education, 15(1), 52-61.
94. Puccioni, J. (2020). Socioeconomic disparities in academic retention: A longitudinal study. Educational Studies Journal, 35(4), 244-260.
95. Pusser, B., Dunn, M., & Hill, L. (2022). Exploring the motivations behind parental involvement in education: A comparative study of community-based initiatives. Journal of Social Science Education, 18(2), 207-221.
96. Reinke, W., Smith, D., & Herman, K. (2019). The role of parental encouragement in academic achievement. Journal of School Psychology, 74, 1-12.
97. Reyes, M. (2021). Home-school collaboration in post-pandemic education: Perspectives from the Philippines. Journal of Educational Research, 52(1), 89-103.
98. Santos, M. A. (2023). The impact of parental expectations on student achievement: A rational expectations approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 44(1), 50-66.
99. Sapungan, A. S. (2014). Parental engagement in Adventist schools in the Philippines: A case study of family values and academic achievement. Journal of Christian Education, 42(1), 77-88.
100. Sarmiento, M., Vicente, C., & Morales, A. (2022). The role of parental involvement in academic engagement and achievement in the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Educational Studies, 44(2), 110-125.
101. Sunshine, B., Azhar, F., & Wahab, F. (2020). The impact of economic factors on academic performance: A global perspective. Journal of Educational Research, 65(2), 110-124.
102. Tadeo, D. L., Almeda, M. E., & Jallorina, D. P. (2023). Parental involvement and academic success in Seventh-day Adventist schools in the Philippines. Educational Review of the Philippines, 41(1), 56-72.
103. Tadeo, D. L., Almeda, M. E., & Jallorina, D. P. (2023). Parental involvement and academic success in Seventh-day Adventist schools in the Philippines. Educational Review of the Philippines, 41(1), 56-72.
104. Tan, P., Lyu, L., & Peng, Y. (2021). Parental education and school preparedness: Evidence from a national survey. Educational Research Review, 55(2), 128-141.
105. Tannen, D. (2021). Communication and relationships: The role of language in human connection. Communication Quarterly, 69(3), 233-249. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2020.1849123
106. Thoits, P. A., & Hewitt, L. N. (2020). Volunteerism and motivation: The intersection of personal values and community engagement. Journal of Social Issues, 76(3), 645-661. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12425
107. Tolentino, A. (2023). Parental support in remote learning environments: A study of the Filipino context. Journal of Educational Technology, 35(1), 32-47.
108. Tsinidou, M., & Koutsou, V. (2021). The relationship between teacher-student interactions and academic performance in higher education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 43(3), 45-59.
109. Tsinidou, M., Koutsou, S., & Ioannou, A. (2020). The relationship between teacher-student interaction and academic performance. International Journal of Educational Leadership, 17(3), 319-333.
110. Tubrey, C., Lord, A., & McCartney, K. (2020). Vygotsky and the social context of cognitive development: Implications for educational practice. Educational Psychology Review, 32(3), 577-596.
111. Tudge, J. R. H., Pomerantz, E. M., & McGrew, J. R. (2021). The role of parental involvement in early childhood development: An integrated perspective. Developmental Psychology, 57(4), 513-529. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001263
112. van Oers, B. (2020). Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory in the classroom: Expanding cognitive development through social interaction. Educational Psychologist, 55(2), 95-107.
113. Vermunt, J. D. (2020). Learning styles and academic performance: A review of the literature. Educational Psychology Review, 32(4), 567-582.
114. Vijaya, R. (2021). The role of parental involvement in shaping high school students’ academic achievement. Journal of Educational Research and Practice, 16(1), 50-60.
115. Vygotsky, L. S. (2021). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Harvard University Press.
116. Walsh, D. J., & Carlson, S. M. (2021). Expectations and investments: Parental decision-making in the academic development of children. International Journal of Educational Research, 118, 102107.
117. Wintre, M. G., & Yaffe, M. (2021). Student performance and institutional factors: The role of personal and environmental influences. Higher Education Studies, 41(2), 189-202.
118. Wood, D. (2023). Scaffolding and learning: How parents support children’s development. Journal of Early Childhood Education, 58(1), 25-36.
119. World Economic Forum. (2023). Shifting gender roles and their impact on parenting. World Economic Forum Report.
120. Yaffe, S. (2020). Gender roles and academic outcomes: A comparative study of parental and societal influences. Journal of Child Development and Education, 34(3), 410-425.
121. Yaffe, S. (2020). Parenting styles and academic outcomes: Gender differences in parental roles. Parenting Science Quarterly, 21(2), 106-119.
122. You, S. (2018). Environmental and psychological factors influencing student academic performance: A multi-dimensional analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 48(2), 215-228.
123. You, S. (2021). Academic performance and motivation: How course experience and effort contribute to success. Educational Studies, 64(1), 17-31.
124. You, S. (2021). Environmental and psychological factors influencing student academic performance: A multi-dimensional analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 48(2), 215-228.
125. Zhan, L., & Zhang, Y. (2023). Parental involvement and student achievement in secondary education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 115(2), 148-162.

APPENDIX

Appendix D – The Questionnaire

Parents’ Involvement And Learners’ Academic Performance:

The researcher is currently conducting a study entitled “PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT AND LEARNERS’ ACADEMIC.” Baseline data from the results of this study are hoped to serve as impetus towards improving parental involvement and improving SDA schools’ in-reach and outreach programs to stakeholders and clients which is ultimately geared towards improving learners’ academic performance and parental involvement in the academic pursuit of their children.

You need not identify yourself in your response. You are assured that strict confidentiality will be observed in the conduct of this study.  Your immediate heartfelt assistance is highly appreciated

1. Respondent’s Profile:

Code:  AAB – ________

            AAI – _________

            CPACA- _______

Instruction:

Kindly CHECK the option that fits you as a respondent…

1. PARENT’S PROFILE
   1. Sex: ( ) Male                       ( ) Female
   2. Religion: ( ) SDA                        ( ) Non-SDA
   3. Educational Attainment: ( ) Professional            ( ) Non-Professional
2. STUDENT’S PROFILE
   1. Sex:             ( ) Male                       ( ) Female
   2. Religion: ( ) SDA                        ( ) Non-SDA
   3. JHS Education: ( ) Same SDA school where I am enrolled now

( ) From another SDA school

( ) From non-SDA private school

( ) From public school

II.Parental Involvement Questionnaire (Piq): partially based on Joyce Epstein’s (n.d.) Framework of Parental Six Types of Involvement

Instruction:

Please indicate your preferred answer to each question by “WRITING A NUMBER FROM 1 TO 6” that indicates your choice.

Legend:

            Point               Description                Explanation

            6                      Very high                    82.51 – 100% true of my parents

            5                      High                            66.51 – 82.51% true of my parents

            4                      Slightly high               49.51 – 66.00% true of my parents

            3                      Slightly low                33.01 – 49.50% true of my parents

            2                      Low                             16.51 – 33.00% true of my parents

            1                      Very low                     1 – 16.50% true of my parents

Instruction:

Please indicate your preferred answer to each question by “ENCIRCLE A NUMBER FROM 1 TO 6” that indicates your choice.

Legend:

            Point               Description                Explanation

            6                      Very high                    82.51 – 100% true of me

            5                      High                            66.51 – 82.51% true of me

            4                      Slightly high               49.51 – 66.00% true of me

            3                      Slightly low                33.01 – 49.50% true of me

            2                      Low                             16.51 – 33.00% true of me

            1                      Very low                     1 – 16.50% true of me

The Scoring Sheet

Instructions: Transfer the numbers you circled on the questionnaire to the blanks below, add each column, and divide each sum by five. This will give you comparable scores for each of the seven areas.

INSTRUMENT’S FACE AND CONTENT VALIDITY ASSESSMENT TOOL:

Instruction:

Please indicate your opinion on the statements provided below by encircling the number which corresponds to your answer. The statements are taken from the criteria developed for evaluating survey questionnaire set forth by

Carter V. Goods and Douglas B. Scates as arranged by Sarrosa (2016).

Legend:

Point:             Description:               Interpretation:

   1                   Strongly disagree                  = 1.00 to 24.50% true

   2                   Disagree                                 = 24.51 to 49.99% true

   3                   Undecided                  = 50.00% true

   4                   Agree                          = 50.01 to 75.00% true

   5                   Strongly agree                       = 75.01 to 100% true

Juror:                                                 __________________________________________

Academic Degree/s:              ________________________________________________

Date of assessment:               ________________________________________________

Signature:                              _______________________________________________

Total score/Rating:               ________________________________________________

INSTRUMENT’S CONSTRUCT VALIDITY ASSESSMENT TOOL:

Instruction:

Please indicate your opinion on the statements provided below by encircling the number which corresponds to your answer. The statements are taken from the criteria developed for evaluating survey questionnaire set forth by Messick based on Unified Theory of Construct Validity as arranged by Sarrosa (2016).

Legend:

Point:             Description:               Interpretation:

   1                   Strongly disagree      = 1.00 to 24.50% true

   2                   Disagree                     = 24.51 to 49.99% true

   3                   Undecided                  = 50.00% true

   4                   Agree                          = 50.01 to 75.00% true

   5                   Strongly agree           = 75.01 to 100% true

Juror:                                     ________________________________________________

Academic Degree/s:  ________________________________________________

Date of assessment:   ________________________________________________

Signature:                  ________________________________________________

Total score/Rating:   ________________________________________________

Appendix E

Normality Test, Three Major Variables

When Taken As A Whole

For PI by students:

Comment: Use NP tests.

For PI by parents:

For AP:

For combined PI:

Comment: Use NP test

Appendix F

Normality Test Parental Involvement

– Parents’ Perspective

For parents’ gender:

Comment: Use NP test – Mann-Whitney U.

For parents’ religion:

Comment: Use NP test, MWU.

For parents’ educational attainment:

Comment: Use NP test, MWU.

Appendix G

Normality Test – Parental Involvement By Students

For gender of students:

Comment: Use NP test, MWU.

For students’ religion:

Comment: Use NP test, MWU.

For students’ source of JHS education :

Comment: Try NP test, MWU if allowable

Appendix H

Curriculum Vitae

LEAH S. BARON

Address:       Adventist Academy Bacolod Inc., Taculing, Bacolod City, Philippines

Contact No: 063 (09202314347/091750000729)

Email:          leahbaron0122@gmail.com

Personal Data

Gender                        :           Female

Height                         :           4’11

Date of Birth               :           January 14, 1975

Place of Birth              :           La Castellana, Negros Occidental

Civil Status                 :           Widow

Religion                      :           Seventh-day Adventist

Citizenship                 :           Filipino

Academic Background

Elementary     Inclusive years             School                                    Address

1987                  So. Old Fabrica Elem School            So. Old Fabrica, Brgy. Cabagna-an. La Castellana Neg. Occ.

High School    1991                La Castellana NHS                           La Castellana, Negros Occidental

College            2001                Central Philippine Adventist College   Alegria, Murcia, Negros Occidental

Masters         2023                Central Philippine Adventist College   Alegria, Murcia,              Negros Occidental

Work Experience

Inclusive Years:                      Position, Organization, Address

2004-2007                               Computer Teacher, Bacolod Adventist Elem School, Taculing Bacolod City

2007-2020                               Computer Teacher and Asst. Registrar. NMA

                                                Taculing, Bacolod City

2017-2018                               School Registrar

2007- 2024                              Fulltime Teacher and Assist Registration

Licenses

Date:                                       Name of license; Rank or award if any

2006                                        Licensure Examination for Teachers