Political, Economic, and Socio-Cultural Integration of Women in Cameroon in Light of UN Conventions and Conferences, 1975–2020

Political, Economic, and Socio-Cultural Integration of Women in Cameroon in Light of UN Conventions and Conferences, 1975–2020

Njingang Edwige Flore

Department of History/FALSH University of Yaounde I

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.908000510

Received: 13 August 2025; Accepted: 20 August 2025; Published: 18 September 2025

ABSTRACT

The first World Conference on Women, held in Mexico in 1975, marked a major turning point in the promotion of gender equality by establishing an international framework for action. Since then, United Nations conventions and conferences have had a significant impact on global and national policies concerning women’s rights. As a member of the UN, Cameroon has ratified several of these conventions and participated in such conferences, thereby committing itself to the promotion of gender equality.

This research, based on written and oral sources, seeks to examine the evolution of women’s status in Cameroon in light of these international commitments. Surveys conducted in Bafoussam, Bertoua, Douala, Ebolowa, and Yaoundé reveal that, despite efforts made to increase women’s representation in decision-making bodies, major obstacles persist. Access to promotion programs and credit has indeed contributed to some progress, but the majority of women remain confined to the informal sector with limited access to resources. Likewise, although education and recognition of women’s rights have improved, discriminatory cultural practices continue to hinder their full participation.

The objective of this study is to assess the effectiveness of international commitments in shaping national policies and addressing the realities in Camerooon, by identifying achievements as well as persistent challenges, in order to promote the genuine integration of women into political, economic, and socio-cultural spheres.

keywords: Integration, Conventions, Conferences, Women, Cameroon.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The integration of women into political, economic, and socio-cultural spheres has been a global priority, reinforced by major international commitments, for several decades. As early as 1975, the international community recognized that women, due to social marginalization, did not benefit from development policies  to the same extent as men. This awareness spurred research, negotiations, and grassroots actions that led to commitments adopted by states at international conferences[1].

However, after more than forty years of efforts to improve women’s status, the results have fallen short of expectations. For this reason, the United Nations emphasizes the need for strong leadership and concerted efforts to overcome the persistent obstacles to gender equality[2].

This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the measures taken by Cameroonian public authorities to improve women’s status and to highlight their shortcomings. The main objective is to assess the impact of Cameroon’s commitments, within the framework of UN conventions and conferences, on the integration of women into society. It seeks to highlight both achievements and shortcomings in the political, economic, and socio-cultural domains, with the aim of promoting effective and sustainable gender equality.

Our analysis covers the period from 1975 to 2020. The year 1975, proclaimed “International Women’s Year” by the UN, was marked by the first World Conference on Women in Mexico[3]. This period symbolizes the beginning of international recognition of the discrimination faced by women. The endpoint, 2020, corresponds to the “Beijing +25” forum held in Cameroon[4], an event that assessed the progress achieved 25 years after the adoption of the Beijing Platform for Action. This timeframe therefore allows us to analyze the evolution of women’s status over a sufficiently long period, directly linked to international commitments.

Theory of Integration and the Concept of Conventions and Conferences

To better understand women’s increasing access to the political, economic, and social spheres in Cameroon, it is important to consider the theory of integration, which demonstrates that progress achieved in one area can stimulate progress in other areas.

The Theory of Integration

Ernst Haas defines integration as a set of processes through which people work together in different areas (political, cultural, economic, and social) with the aim of building a more unified and cohesive identity over time. In 1958, Haas expanded this theory, explaining that when countries or groups of people cooperate in one sector, this dynamic naturally leads to cooperation in other sectors, such as politics. He referred to this phenomenon as the “spillover effect”[5]. For Karl W. Deutsch, “real integration requires that people involved feel they belong to the same community, share common interests, and are ready to resolve their problems together in a peaceful manner”[6]. His approach highlights political community and a sense of belonging, whereas Haas focuses on the gradual and functional process of sectoral integration that automatically expands into other areas.

In the context of this study, integration is not limited to the physical presence of women in different domains of Cameroonian society, but also to their effective and influential participation. It implies equal opportunities, the removal of structural barriers, and the transformation of social norms.

Political integration refers to women’s active participation in decision-making bodies such as government, parliament, political parties, and local structures.

Economic integration involves equitable access to resources, the labor market, entrepreneurship, and ownership of the means of production.

Socio-cultural integration highlights the recognition and valuing of women’s roles in social norms, cultural practices, education, health, and family rights.

This perspective aligns with the analyses of Marie-Angélique Savané[7], N’Diaye Ramatoulaye[8], and Fatou Sow[9], who define women’s integration as a two-way transformation process. It requires not only structural reforms (laws, institutions) but also changes in mindsets (culture, social perceptions). According to them, international conventions such as CEDAW or the Beijing Conference provide the general framework, but it is local political action and social mobilization that ensure their effective implementation.

The Concept of Conventions and Conferences

United Nations conventions and conferences form the international normative framework of our analysis. Conventions impose legal obligations, whereas conferences exert political and social pressure to ensure that these commitments are translated into concrete actions at the national level[10]. Instruments such as CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women), the Beijing Declaration, and UN Security Council Resolution 1325 guide states in adopting public policies that promote gender equality. This concept is central to our theme, as it allows us to examine how Cameroon has translated these international commitments into concrete actions and to assess their impact on policies in favor of women.

Historical Context of UN Conventions and Conferences: The Situation of Women before UN Conferences

Global Level

Before the era of conferences, women’s situation was marked by significant disparities in gender relations. Women’s integration into public affairs management was limited. Most international organizations and governments had not yet made gender equality a priority. Efforts often focused on integrating women into development through isolated actions, which did not address structural inequalities. The gender perspective was not yet fully integrated into development strategies[11].

In Africa

African women have long been at the center of complex debates. Their integration into sociopolitical structures was hindered by the colonial legacy, which favored the education of men. Women had limited access to schooling and administrative positions due to the Western ideology that reinforced male superiority. Similarly, modern agricultural methods were primarily taught to men, relegating women to subsistence farming[12].

In Cameroon

During the colonial period and even after independence, women’s integration into development in Cameroon was hindered by institutional, political, economic, and social problems[13].

On a sociocultural level, women’s roles were traditionally confined to domestic tasks and ensuring family continuity. Women represented 51% of the population but were underrepresented in the professional world, even though the number of girls attending school had increased. Discrimination persisted in working conditions, salaries, and training[14].

On a legal level, women were disadvantaged. The 1990 law prohibiting the promotion of contraception restricted women’s access to information on family planning[15]. Illegal abortion was widespread, and married women were discriminated against by law and custom, with the husband alone managing community property. The minimum marriage age (18 for girls and 21 for men) also reflected inequality, and early marriages remained common in certain rural areas[16].

On a political level, women were largely underrepresented in decision-making spheres despite their dynamism in civil society through movements and organizations defending their interests[17].Territorial command was monopolized by men, excluding women from power circles and rendering their actions less visible due to a lack of reliable data[18].

UN Conventions and Conferences

The United Nations Action for Women in response to gender inequalities, mobilized efforts. This action led to the adoption of numerous conventions, declarations, and international conferences, whose implementation is crucial to achieving equality[19]. Consequently, the action plans arising from these consultations constitute a new operational roadmap.

Conventions

In 1946, the UN created the Commission on the Status of Women, the first intergovernmental body responsible for monitoring the evolution of women’s rights. The Commission identified four areas of discrimination: political and legal rights, access to education, and the right to work[20].

This led to the adoption of several conventions, the most significant being the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) of 1979. Entering into force in 1981, CEDAW is the most comprehensive international agreement on women’s fundamental rights. It defines discrimination as “any distinction, exclusion, or restriction based on sex” and requires the 182 signatory countries to integrate equality of rights into their national legislation and to submit periodic reports on progress made[21]. CEDAW rests on three fundamental principles: equality, non-discrimination, and state accountability.

2.United Nations Conferences

Starting in 1975, the United Nations proclaimed the UN Decade for Women (1975–1985) and organized world conferences to make women’s promotion an international concern[22].

Mexico Conference (1975): This conference marked a turning point by recognizing that discrimination against women persisted worldwide. It established three priority objectives: full gender equality, women’s participation in development, and greater contribution of women in all areas. The resulting action plan emphasized equal access to education, work, political participation, health, and family planning[23].

Copenhagen Conference (1980): It highlighted the gap between legal equality and the practical application of rights. The emphasis was placed on equality in terms of exercising rights and real opportunities. The action program identified several obstacles, notably the lack of political will, low recognition of women’s contributions, and their absence from decision-making positions[24].

Nairobi Conference (1985): This conference observed that improvements had benefited only a minority of women, particularly in developing countries. It led to the adoption of the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Year 2000, a renewed work plan for the future of women[25].

Beijing Conference (1995): Bringing together 189 countries and 50,000 participants, this conference represented an exceptional act of  mobilization. It highlighted the importance of promoting women’s rights for the progress of society as a whole. Governments were invited to define their own priorities and to adopt legal, institutional, and social measures to ensure gender equality and women’s participation in political life[26].

The Impact of UN Conventions and Conferences on Women’s Integration in Cameroon

Since the adoption of conventions and the holding of world conferences, women’s concerns have been increasingly considered in national reforms.

Implementation of International Commitments in Cameroon

Cameroon’s ratification of key international instruments for the protection of women’s rights, notably the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) of 1979, has led to the gradual adoption of laws and reforms translating these commitments at the national level. Consequently, Cameroon has incorporated several provisions into its domestic law promoting gender equality.

Legal Level

Significant advances include the reform of the Penal Code by Law No. 92/007 of 14 August 1992[27], which recognized the right to work for all, prohibited dismissal due to pregnancy, and granted 14 weeks of maternity leave and Law No. 2016/007 of 12 July 2016,[28] which criminalized child marriage and strengthened sanctions against gender-based violence. In addition, the General Statute of the Civil Service (Decree No. 287/2000)[29] established equal access to public positions without gender distinction.

Institutional Level

The large-scale awareness movement of the 1970s and 1980s, focused on women’s status and integration into development, materialized in Cameroon through the creation of structures for the promotion of women[30]. In 1975, the first Women’s Status Service was created within the Ministry of Youth and Sports. Its mission was to integrate women’s concerns into public policies following the Mexico Conference[31]. In 1984, this structure was transformed into the Directorate for the Promotion of Women (DPF), attached to the Department of Social Affairs and Women’s Status. This reform aimed to amplify gender issues in social policy agendas[32].

In 1997, the Directorate was elevated to the Ministry of Women’s Promotion (MINPROF), as following the Beijing Conference, the state deemed it necessary to strengthen the institutional empowerment of the national gender policy[33].In 2004, it was renamed the Ministry of Women Empowerment and the Family (MINPROFF) to extend its mission to managing family-related issues. This ministry is tasked with ensuring the elimination of all discrimination against women.

Political Level

Women’s participation in decision-making has progressed: the number of women registered on electoral lists increased from 35% in 2007 to 48% in 2019, reducing the gender gap from 30 to 4 points[34]. The proportion of women parliamentarians also increased significantly: from 10 women (out of 180 seats) in 1997–2002 to 61 women for the 2020–2025 legislature, representing an increase in their representation from 5.5% to 34%[35]. The number of female senators rose from 21% to 26% between 2013 and 2018. The number of women mayors increased from 29 to 39 between the 2013–2019 and 2020–2025 terms, while deputy mayors reached 327[36]. These gains result from advocacy for a minimum 30% quota for women.

Economic and Budgetary Level

Although the study period extends from 1975 to 2020, it should be noted that gender-sensitive budgeting (GSB) is a recent approach in Cameroon, gradually introduced from 2010 in pilot ministries. Its official formalization and generalization across all administrations occurred with the publication of ministerial circulars and strategic documents in 2022–2023. GSB is a continuation of historical efforts to promote gender equality and women’s empowerment, integrating the gender dimension into planning and public resource allocation. It thus illustrates the intention to translate international and national commitments into actual budget allocations, strengthening the tangible impact of public policies on both women and men[37].

Furthermore, the 2003 Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) prioritized poverty alleviation. The Cameroon Household Surveys (ECAM) showed that the monetary poverty rate among women was 39.9% in 2001, and in rural areas, it was 52.3% in 2001 and 2007[38]. To address this, the government encouraged women to pursue scientific and technical fields and facilitated their access to credit and entrepreneurship. Actions by the State, NGOs, and development agencies enabled the implementation of support programs, free training, and financial assistance, leading to a significant expansion of female entrepreneurship. Some surveys estimate that 38% of formal businesses in Cameroon are run by women[39]. These enterprises, often SMEs, employ between 20 and 250 people[40]. The most represented sectors are trade, household services, and hospitality.

Socio-Cultural Level

The government has implemented the recommendations from the Mexico and Beijing conferences, particularly regarding education and the fight against harmful practices. Measures have been taken to reduce gender disparities in the education system, such as community awareness campaigns, the deployment of teachers to disadvantaged regions, and the allocation of a 40% quota of scholarships to girls[41]. To combat child and forced marriages, a national coordination platform has been established. The Penal Code was reformed by Law No. 2016/007 of 12 July 2016, which criminalizes marriage for persons under 18[42].

Challenges and Perspectives for Women’s Integration in Cameroon

Despite progress, Cameroonian women continue to face significant disparities, exacerbated by social exclusion factors, unfavorable customs, and a preference for boys.

Political Level

Women’s participation remains limited. They represent only 16.4% of ministerial positions (11 out of 67) and are underrepresented in territorial administration, with only 15 female divisional officers out of 360, 2 female senior divisional officers out of 58, and no female governors out of 10 in 2020[43].

Economic Level

Women struggle to access means of production. They own only about 2% of land and receive on average only 1% of credits allocated to the agropastoral sector. Limited access to financing and insufficient project monitoring hinder the development of female entrepreneurship[44].

Socio-Cultural Level

Customs, weak enforcement of laws, low schooling rates, and stereotypes continue to impede women’s integration. Gender-based violence remains a major issue, with regional specificities and governance problems reducing the effectiveness of state efforts[45].

Intersectional Approach to Challenges

Analyzing gender inequalities in Cameroon gains depth when approached through the lens of intersectionality, taking into account the multiple factors that combine to shape women’s experiences. Beyond gender identity, Cameroonian women often face discrimination linked to their ethnic background, socio-economic status, place of residence (urban/rural), or disability.

Thus, in rural and remote areas, girls continue to face low enrollment in school and early marriages more frequently than in urban areas. Similarly, women from minority or marginalized groups, such as certain indigenous peoples, experience double exclusion: both because of their gender and their community status. Women living with disabilities face even greater obstacles, whether in access to healthcare, education, or employment[46].

This intersectional perspective shows that public policies, even when promoting gender equality, may remain insufficient if these overlapping vulnerability factors are not considered. For this reason, several national and international organizations recommend that future strategies for women’s integration in Cameroon explicitly incorporate this dimension to ensure truly equitable inclusion[47].

Proposed Solutions

Political Level

It is crucial to reform the electoral code to guarantee better representation of women, notably through the establishment of a quota system of at least 30%. It is also recommended to support networks of elected women so that they can assist each other and pool their efforts[48].

Economic Level

Integrating a gender perspective into national budgeting would ensure that public policies address women’s specific needs. The government should also facilitate the creation of women-led businesses, support their management, and improve their access to technology and financing[49].

Socio-Cultural Level

Eliminating violence against women requires strong political commitment. Targeted awareness campaigns on girls’ education and the dangers of early marriage are essential[50].Collaboration with NGOs and community leaders is crucial to end impunity and change mindsets[51].

CONCLUSION

UN conventions and conferences have undeniably placed gender equality at the heart of both global and national agendas. In Cameroon, these commitments have led to significant legislative and institutional reforms, promoting better integration of women. However, as this study reveals, the path to true gender equality still faces obstacles. Women’s participation in political and economic spheres continues to confront strong cultural and political resistance, while discriminatory laws and customs continue to hinder their empowerment. The analysis of persistent obstacles—whether political, economic, or socio-cultural—highlights the urgency of adopting concrete solutions. Implementing quotas, gender-sensitive budgeting, and enhanced awareness campaigns are all avenues that could enable Cameroon to advance toward sustainable development, where women, as full actors, can finally claim the place they deserve.

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FOOTNOTE

[1]Nations Unies, Rapport de la Conférence mondiale de l’Année internationale de la femme, Mexico, 19 juin-2 juillet 1975, New York, Nations Unies, 1976, p. 15.

[2] Nations Unies, Rapport de la Conférence mondiale sur les femmes, Beijing, 4-15 septembre 1995, New York, Nations Unies, 1996, p. 12.

[3] Nations Unies, Rapport de la Conférence mondiale sur les femmes, Beijing, 4-Nations Unies, Rapport de la Conférence mondiale de l’Année internationale de la femme, Mexico, 19 juin-2 juillet 1975, op. cit., p. 3.

[4] MINPROFF, Rapport national Beijing +25, Yaoundé, 2020, p. 7.

[5]Ernst B. Haas, The Uniting of Europe: Political, Social and Economic Forces, 1950–1957, Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1958, p. 16.

[6] Karl W. Deutsch et al., Political Community and the North Atlantic Area: International Organization in the Light of Historical Experience, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1957, p. 5.

[7] Marie-Angélique Savané, « Genre et développement en Afrique : dynamiques et enjeux », Revue Tiers Monde, no 205, 2011, p. 27

[8]N’Diaye Ramatoulaye, « Genre et participation politique des femmes en Afrique : état des lieux et perspectives », Cahiers Genre et Développement, no 11, 2013, p. 43

[9] Fatou Sow, « Genre et société en Afrique : résistances et mutations », Afrique et Développement, vol. 40, no 2, 2015, p. 62.

[10] Jean Combacau et Serge Sur, Droit international public, Paris, Montchrestien, 10e 11édition, 2016, p. 314-316.

[11] UNESCO, « Rapport du colloque international sur la problématique de la formation à l’approche genre », Bordeaux, Paris, 2–4 février 2006, p.10.

[12] A. Lebœuf, La civilisation de la femme dans la tradition africaine, Paris 6, Présence Africaine, 1972, pp. 500-502.

[13] Duru-Bellat, L’école de filles : quelle formation pour quels rôles sociaux ?, Paris, France, Harmattan, 1992, p.6.

[14] C. Florence Mebada, « Rapport de la Conférence sur le Renforcement des Capacités de la Femme dans l’Administration, la Gouvernance et le Leadership », Tanger, 23 – 25 Mars 2009, p. 2.

[15]« Rapport de la 21ème session du Comité sur les droits économiques, sociaux et culturels de la femme au Cameroun », Douala, Cameroun, 1999, p. 18.

[16] 16 Ibid.

[17] Lema, Intégrer les questions de genre au Cameroun, Rome, Italie, Terme di Caracalla, 2007, p. 10.

[18] 18. I. Mouich, Genre et commandement territorial au Cameroun, Paris, France, cahier d’étude africaine, 2007, p. 2.

[19] E. Hofmann, Promouvoir l’égalité entre hommes et femmes, Paris, France, M.A.E, 2006, p.15

[20]20 Ibid.

[21]Ibid., p.16.

[22]Nations Unies, rapport de la conférence mondiale chargée d’examiner et d’évaluer les résultats de la Décennie des Nations Unies pour la femme : égalité, développement et paix, Nairobi, 15–26 juillet 1985, New York, Nations Unies, 1986, p.3–5.

[23]Nations Unies, rapport de la conférence mondiale de l’année internationale de la femme, Mexico, 19 juin–2 juillet 1975, New York, Nations Unies, 1976, p.6–10.

[24] Nations Unies, rapport de la conférence mondiale  de la Décennie des Nations Unies pour  la femme : égalité, développement et paix, Copenhague, 12-13 juillet 1980 Mexico, New York, Nations Unies, 1980, p.12-15.

[25] Nations Unies, rapport de la conférence mondiale chargée d’examiner et d’évaluer… p. 7-10.

[26] CEPED, « Du Caire à Beijing : combat des femmes pour légalité », Les Dossiers du CEPED, no 19, Paris, Décembre 1995, p. 1.

[27]Loi n° 92/007 du 14 aout 1992 portant code du travail au Cameroun, Recueil des textes de base, Ministère du Travail et de la Sécurité Sociale, Yaoundé, 1992, article 84, p.45.

[28]Loi n° 2016/007 du 12 juillet 2016 relative à la protection de l’enfant et à la prévention des violences basées sur le genre, République du Cameroun, art. 296 et 350, consulté le 21 août 2025 sur WIPO : https://www.wipo.int/wipolex/fr/legislation/details/16366

[29] Décret n° 2000/287 du 12 octobre 2000 portant modification du Statut général de la fonction publique, République du Cameroun, art. 12, consulté le 21 août 2025 sur MINFOPRA : https://www.minfopra.gov.cm/recueil/fichiers%20 word/DECRET%20N%C2%B0%202000287%20DU%2012%20OCTOBRE%202000.pdf

[30] Nations Unies, rapport de la session extraordinaire de l’Assemblée Générale des Nations

Unies, les femmes en l’an 2000 : égalité entre les sexes, développement et paix pour le XXe siècle, 5–9 juin 2000, New York, Nations Unies, 2000, p.3.

[31]République du Cameroun, Rapport National sur le Suivi de la Mise en œuvre de la plateforme d’action de Beijing, Yaoundé, MINPROFF, 1999, p.12–114.

[32]Joséphine F. Nguene, « La promotion de la femme au Cameroun : enjeux et perspectives », Revue camerounaise de la Femme et du développement, no 7, 2005, p.25–27.

[33] République du Cameroun, Rapport National sur le Suivi de… p.15–17.

[34]MINPROFF, « Rapport d’études sur la participation de la femme à la vie publique », Yaoundé, MINPROFF, 2009, p.24.

[35]INS, « Le leadership féminin : pour un futur égalitaire dans le monde de la covid 19 », Yaoundé, Cameroun, mai 2021, p.8.

[36]Afrique. le 360. ma, « Cameroun : le combat des femmes pour plus de représentativité dans la vie publique », 23 avril 2019, consulté en août 2025, https://afrique.le360.ma/autres-pays/politique/2019/04/23/2609-Cameroun-le-combat-des-femmes-pour-plus-de-représentativité-dans-la-vie-publique-26091/.

[37]République du Cameroun, Ministère des Finances, Annexe du Projet de Loi de Finances 2024 : Budgétisation Sensible au Genre, Yaoundé, 2023, p.2.

[38]MINPROFF, « Rapport de l’examen national du Cameroun dans la mise en œuvre de la déclaration et du programme d’action de Beijing 1995 », Yaoundé, MINPROFF, 2013, p.16.

[39]A. Etoa Ndende, l’Entrepreneuriat Féminin au Cameroun de 1975-2005 : une approche historique d’intégration de la femme dans le circuit économique, Mémoire de D.E.A. en histoire, Université de Yaoundé I, 2008,  p. 73.

[40]Ibid.

[41]E. Mvondo Mengue, « Dépendance économique de la femme et violence conjugale physique envers les femmes en union au Cameroun », Mémoire de Master Professionnel en Démographie, IFORD, Yaoundé, 2011, p.23.

[42]Ibid.

[43]INS, « Le leadership féminin : pour un futur égalitaire… », p.10.

[44]Entretien avec Ngo Hiol Thérèse, 45 ans, membre de l’association CAREF, 09/09/2014, Yaoundé.

[45]C. Cazabat, « La condition de la femme au Cameroun entre progrès et dégradation : contribution des organisations de la Société Civile », thèse de doctorat en Genre et Développement, Université de Paris IV, 2012, p.2.

[46]Sénat, Femme et ruralité : en finir avec les zones blanches de l’égalité, Rapport d’information n° 595 (2020–2021), fait au nom de la délégation aux droits des femmes, Paris, Sénat, 7 juillet 2021, p.2.

[47] ONU Femmes, Rapport sur l’égalité de genre et l’autonomisation des femmes au Cameroun, Nations Unies, New York, 2020.

[48]P. Ngo, Le genre : un outil nécessaire ; introduction à une problématique, Paris, Harmattan, 2000, p.9.

[49]NEPAD, « Rapport de la conférence sur l’égalité des sexes et l’émancipation économique des femmes en Afrique », Berlin, 22–23 mai 2007, p.2.

[50]Ibid.

[51]D. Lema, Intégrer les questions de genre au Cameroun…, p.28.