“Resilient Parenting: The Impact of Single-Parent Childcare Practices on Child Development in Mutoko District, Zimbabwe-A Lens into Global Single-Parenting Trends”

“Resilient Parenting: The Impact of Single-Parent Childcare Practices on Child Development in Mutoko District, Zimbabwe-A Lens into Global Single-Parenting Trends”

Musweweshiri Ottiliah, Machiridza Emilda. R, Bema Loveness

Lecturer, Faculty of Education, Department of Educational Foundations, Primary Education and Pedagogy, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe.

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.905000515

Received: 16 May 2025; Accepted: 20 May 2025; Published: 25 June 2025

ABSTRACT

This study aimed to explore the diverse dynamics of single-parent childcare practices in Mutoko District, Zimbabwe, and assess their impact on child development. The research was framed within a global context of shifting single-parenting trends, with the goal of understanding how local realities intersect with international developments in parenting structures.  A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining quantitative surveys with qualitative interviews and focus group discussions. The study investigated how single parents in Mutoko District navigate socio-economic hardships and cultural expectations, with particular attention to the strategies they use to support their children’s development.  Key factors influencing child development in single-parent households were identified, including levels of parental involvement, economic stability, and the presence of emotional and social support systems. The study highlighted the resilience demonstrated by single parents in mitigating the negative effects of poverty and cultural stigma. The findings emphasize the importance of designing context-specific interventions that support single parents in their caregiving roles. The study concludes that strengthening local support networks, increasing access to economic resources, and promoting inclusive social policies can enhance child development outcomes. By comparing local experiences with global trends, the study contributes to a broader understanding of single-parenting challenges and offers practical recommendations for policymakers, educators, and community leaders working with single-parent families in Zimbabwe and similar context

Keywords: single-parenting, child care, work-life balance

INTRODUCTION

Single parenting has emerged as a global phenomenon influenced by diverse socio-economic, cultural, and policy factors. Worldwide, traditional family structures are evolving due to increasing divorce rates, premarital births, and widowhood. According to Glaveanu (2014), single-parent families account for approximately 13.4% of all households globally, with the United States showing particularly high prevalence, where 70% of children are raised by a single parent (Wright, 2012). The global rise in single parenting presents unique challenges such as financial instability, emotional strain, and difficulty in maintaining best childcare practices, which significantly impact children’s well-being and development (Hofferth & Goldscheider, 2021).

In the African context, the phenomenon is also escalating, although official statistics remain limited. Factors such as the HIV/AIDS pandemic, migration, poverty, and socio-cultural expectations continue to fuel the growth of single-parent households (Mokomane, 2018). Studies in sub-Saharan Africa have linked single parenting to disparities in children’s health, nutrition, and educational outcomes (Kazembe, 2020). However, the extended family system often serves as a buffer against the negative consequences (Heaton, 2020).

Regionally, in Southern Africa—including countries such as Zimbabwe, South Africa, and Zambia—single parenting is significantly influenced by economic hardship, emigration, and health crises such as HIV/AIDS (Fillipa, 2014; Maposa, Zirima & Mushauri, 2020). These challenges have placed immense pressure on single parents to provide adequate nutrition, healthcare, and education for their children, with many struggling to meet recommended childcare standards (Clark & Hamplová, 2022).

Focusing on Zimbabwe, the prevalence of single-parent households is rising, though national statistics remain scarce. The situation is particularly pronounced in rural areas such as Mutoko District, where socio-economic challenges and limited access to services exacerbate the struggles faced by single parents (Chirisa et al., 2020). In Mutoko, many children live with one parentmostly mothers due to death, migration, or separation. These families often encounter barriers to providing quality education, healthcare, and emotional support for their children (Moyo & Nyamukapa, 2021). Despite these challenges, some studies highlight the role of community support and adaptive strategies in promoting resilience among single-parent households (Gukurume, 2021).

This study therefore seeks to examine the childcare practices of single parents in Mutoko District and how these practices affect child development outcomes. By situating the local context within broader global and continental trends, the study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the challenges and opportunities faced by single-parent families.

lThe nature of single parenting

Single parenting has become an increasingly common family structure worldwide, driven by socio-economic, cultural, and demographic transformations. While the traditional two-parent nuclear family remains a dominant model in many societies, single-parent households have risen due to factors such as divorce, separation, non-marital births, migration, and parental mortality (McLanahan and Sandefur, 2020). This family dynamic presents unique challenges and opportunities for both parents and children, necessitating a deeper exploration of its effects on child development, economic stability, and social inclusion.

Global trends in single parenting

The prevalence of single-parent families varies across regions and economic contexts. In high-income countries such as the United States, Canada, and Europe, single parenting is largely shaped by changing gender roles, declining marriage rates, and legal frameworks supporting parental separation (OECD, 2022). According to Pew Research Center (2021), approximately 23% of children in the U.S. live with a single parent, the highest proportion among developed nations. In contrast, countries like Japan and South Korea have significantly lower rates due to cultural expectations regarding marriage and family stability (Amato, 2020).

In middle- and low-income countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America, single parenting is often linked to economic hardship, health crises (such as HIV/AIDS), and migration patterns (Mokomane, 2020). Many single parents, particularly women, face economic vulnerabilities due to limited access to stable employment and social support systems (Heaton, 2019). However, in African societies, extended families play a crucial role in mitigating the negative effects of single parenting by providing financial and emotional support (Kazembe, 2020).

Single Parenting in Africa

The nature of single parenting in Africa is deeply rooted in socio-cultural and economic realities. In many African nations, including Zimbabwe, South Africa, and Nigeria, single-parent families are primarily headed by women, often due to widowhood, divorce, or non-marital childbearing (Dzirikure, 2022). The socio-economic implications of single parenthood in Africa are significant, as many single parents struggle to provide adequate financial and emotional support for their children. According to Chirisa et al. (2020), children raised in single-parent households in Africa are at higher risk of poverty, lower educational attainment, and psychological stress compared to those in two-parent families.

Despite these challenges, African communities have developed coping mechanisms to support single-parent families. The extended family system remains a fundamental structure that provides economic and emotional support to single parents and their children (Moyo and Nyamukapa, 2021). Additionally, faith-based organizations and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have stepped in to provide assistance through educational sponsorships, food programs, and social welfare initiatives (Gukurume, 2021).

Single Parenting in Zimbabwe

In Zimbabwe, single-parent households have increased due to economic instability, migration, and the HIV/AIDS pandemic (Chirisa et al., 2020). Many Zimbabwean single parents, particularly women, face financial hardships, social stigma, and psychological stress while raising children alone (Moyo & Nyamukapa, 2021). In rural areas, extended families play a crucial role in child-rearing, whereas in urban settings, single parents often lack traditional support systems, exacerbating their economic struggles (Dzirikure, 2022).

Single parenting has emerged as a common family structure across the globe, driven by various cultural, economic, and demographic changes. One of the primary causes is the increase in divorce rates, particularly in the latter half of the 20th century, which has contributed to a surge in single-parent households. In high-income countries like the United States, the proportion of children raised in single-parent homes rose from 12% in 1970 to approximately 27% in 2018, largely due to marital dissolution (Smock & Schwartz, 2020). Additionally, delayed marriages and the growing acceptance of non-marital childbearing have played a significant role. More individuals are choosing to marry later or not at all, leading to increased rates of births outside of wedlock, thereby contributing to single parenting (Woessmann, 2020). In African contexts, including Zimbabwe, factors such as early pregnancies, abandonment, death of a partner due to HIV/AIDS, and socio-economic hardships are leading contributors to single parenting (Gukurume, 2021). These trends highlight the importance of context-specific interventions to support single-parent families facing economic and emotional challenges.

Economic instability and poverty are both causes and consequences of single parenting. In some cases, financial hardship can strain marital relationships, leading to separation or divorce. Conversely, single parents, particularly single mothers, often face significant economic challenges due to the responsibility of being the sole breadwinner. In 2022, nearly 30% of single-parent families lived below the federal poverty level, compared to just 6% of married-couple families (Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2022).

Cultural norms and societal attitudes play a crucial role in shaping family structures. In many societies, traditional views on marriage and family are evolving, leading to greater acceptance of diverse family forms, including single-parent households. Increased educational and career opportunities have empowered women to make autonomous decisions about marriage and childbearing, sometimes choosing single parenthood as a viable option.

The diminishing stigma associated with divorce and non-marital childbearing has made it more socially acceptable to raise children outside of traditional marital frameworks. In certain regions, high mortality rates due to health crises, conflicts, or pandemics have led to an increase in single-parent families. For example, the HIV/AIDS epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa has resulted in a significant number of children being raised by a single parent or extended family members due to the loss of one or both parents (Ntoimo and Mutanda, 2020).

Government policies and legal frameworks can influence family dynamics and the prevalence of single-parent households. The introduction of no-fault divorce laws in the 1970s, for instance, made it easier for couples to dissolve marriages without assigning blame, leading to an increase in divorces and, consequently, single-parent families (Smock and Schwartz, 2020).

According to Richards (2020), the causes of single parenting are multifaceted, including demographic changes, economic instability, cultural shifts, health-related issues, and legal reforms. As per his analysis, understanding these contributing factors is essential for policymakers, social workers, and communities to develop focused interventions. Such interventions can help support single-parent households, improve economic stability, and enhance the well-being of both parents and their children.

According to Amoateng and Kalule-Sabiti (2018), single-parent households have become increasingly common across the globe, highlighting the need to examine the childcare practices adopted by these families. As per their findings, single parents often rely on a blend of flexible parenting strategies, informal support networks, and personal resilience to manage the multiple demands of raising children alone. These strategies may include adjusting work schedules, depending on extended family or community members for childcare assistance, and fostering emotional strength to cope with financial and social pressures. Understanding these adaptive approaches is crucial for the development of effective social policies that support the unique needs of single-parent families.

Childcare practices of single parents

Flexibility emerges as a cornerstone in the childcare practices of single parents. The unpredictable nature of work schedules, particularly for those engaged in shift-based employment, necessitates adaptable childcare solutions. Research indicates that only 37% of single parents utilizing informal childcare possess a fixed work schedule, with approximately 26% receiving their work schedules less than a week in advance. Consequently, a significant majority 88% of these parents prioritize flexibility in both the days and hours of care (Smith and Jasinska, 2022).

Traditional childcare centers, operating predominantly between 8 a.m. and 6 p.m., often fail to accommodate the needs of single parents requiring care during early mornings or evenings. This incongruence compels single parents to seek alternative arrangements that can adapt to their nonstandard working hours.

In the quest for flexible childcare solutions, single parents frequently turn to informal support networks comprising relatives, friends, and community members. This reliance is particularly pronounced among single parents, with 72% either personally caring for their children or entrusting them to relatives. Notably, 24% have relocated closer to family members to facilitate such support (Smith and Jasinska, 2022).

While informal care offers the desired flexibility and is often more affordable, it presents challenges, including potential inconsistencies in care quality and the absence of formal oversight. Despite these concerns, the immediacy and adaptability of informal networks render them indispensable to many single-parent families.

Single parents disproportionately face socio-economic hardships, with financial constraints significantly influencing their childcare choices. The high cost of formal childcare services often renders them inaccessible, leading to a dependence on informal arrangements. This financial strain is exacerbated by systemic issues such as wage disparities and limited access to social support services (Broadway and Vera-Toscano, 2020).

Despite these adversities, single parents often exhibit remarkable resilience. They employ various coping strategies, including meticulous financial planning, time management, and the cultivation of robust support networks. These adaptive measures not only facilitate effective childcare but also contribute to the overall well-being and development of their children (Chavda and Nisarga, 2023).

Single parents employ a range of adaptive childcare practices to navigate the complexities of their unique circumstances. By prioritizing flexibility, leveraging informal support networks, and demonstrating resilience, they strive to provide nurturing environments for their children. Policy measures that recognize and support these efforts are crucial in promoting the well-being of single-parent families.

Statement of the Problem

Single parents in Mutoko District face numerous challenges in providing adequate childcare and supporting the developmental needs of their early childhood learners. These challenges include financial constraints, limited access to quality childcare services, and difficulties in balancing work and parenting responsibilities. As a result, children from single-parent households often experience lower academic achievement and increased psychological difficulties such as anxiety and behavioral problems. Despite the growing number of single-parent families, there is limited research that comprehensively explores how these challenges affect childcare practices and early childhood development outcomes in this community. This study seeks to address this gap by examining the specific problems faced by single parents in Mutoko District and their impact on the development and well-being of young children under their care.

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

This study employed a mixed-methods research design, specifically adopting the convergent parallel design model. According to Creswell (2014), the convergent parallel design facilitates the simultaneous collection and analysis of quantitative and qualitative data, thereby allowing for a comprehensive understanding of complex social phenomena through triangulation of diverse data sources. In this study, this design was chosen to capture both quantitative measurements of the prevalence and intensity of childcare challenges and developmental outcomes among children raised by single parents, alongside rich qualitative data that reflect the lived experiences, perceptions, and coping mechanisms of these parents in Mutoko District.

Participants

The study involved a total of 28 participants, including 20 single parents who serve as primary caregivers in Mutoko District and 8 early childhood development (ECD) learners aged between 3 and 6 years living in single-parent households. Participants were selected using purposive sampling to ensure that only those single parents actively caring for young children were included, thus aligning with the research objectives. This sampling technique is appropriate for qualitative research, as it facilitates the collection of rich and detailed information from individuals who have direct experience with the phenomenon under study (Patton, 2002).

Data Collection Methods and Procedures

Data collection utilized complementary quantitative and qualitative methods to gain a comprehensive understanding of childcare practices among single parents and their effects on child development. Quantitative data were gathered using structured questionnaires administered to the 20 single parents. These questionnaires collected numerical data on the frequency and severity of challenges faced, such as financial constraints, time management difficulties, and access to essential services. They also included items measuring child developmental indicators like academic progress and health outcomes.

Qualitative data were obtained through semi-structured interviews conducted with 8 single parents purposefully selected from the questionnaire respondents. These interviews explored participants’ daily childcare routines, emotional experiences, challenges, and strategies used to support their children’s development. Additionally, interviews were conducted with 5 local educators and community stakeholders to provide supplementary perspectives on the children’s behavioral patterns and school performance. Where possible, direct observations of childcare environments were carried out to triangulate data and provide contextual understanding.

Instruments

The quantitative component relied on structured questionnaires designed to capture demographic data, financial status, time allocation, access to childcare services, and perceived childcare efficacy. The qualitative component used semi-structured interview guides developed to explore the lived experiences of single parents, focusing on childcare practices, emotional wellbeing, and coping mechanisms. Child development assessments were conducted using standardized tools adapted to the local context, assessing cognitive, emotional, social, and physical development of ECD learners, through a combination of teacher reports and direct observation.

Data Analysis

Quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS version 25. Descriptive statistics—including frequencies, means, and standard deviations—summarized key findings on parental challenges and child developmental outcomes. Inferential analyses such as Pearson correlation and one-way ANOVA were performed to examine the relationships between childcare practices and developmental measures. Qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-step framework. This process involved transcription of interviews, systematic coding, theme identification, and interpretation. Representative participant quotations were included to illuminate key themes and enhance the richness of the findings.

FINDINGS

Challenges Experienced by Single Parents in Implementing Best Childcare Practices

Single parents in Mutoko District faced multifaceted challenges in implementing optimal childcare practices. These challenges were predominantly financial, temporal, infrastructural, and emotional.

Financial Constraints

Financial hardship was a significant barrier affecting the ability of single parents to provide adequate childcare. Many participants reported struggling to afford basic needs such as nutritious food, school fees, and healthcare expenses. This economic strain often led to compromises in the quality of care they could offer. For example, several parents mentioned having to prioritize immediate needs like food over educational materials or medical check-ups. One participant stated, “There is not enough money for good food and school fees,” highlighting how financial limitations affected multiple aspects of their children’s wellbeing.

The financial difficulties faced by single parents also impacted their ability to access quality childcare services. Due to limited funds, many parents relied on informal or unpaid caregiving arrangements, such as leaving children with relatives or neighbors, which were often less reliable or supportive of optimal child development. This reliance on informal care increased parental stress and reduced opportunities for children to engage in structured early learning environments. These challenges reflect broader trends noted by McLanahan and Sandefur (1994), who emphasize the heightened economic vulnerability and resource scarcity commonly experienced by single-parent families worldwide. Consequently, financial constraints not only restricted access to essential services but also contributed to emotional and psychological stress among parents, further affecting their caregiving capacity.

Time Management and Work-Life Balance

Participants described significant challenges in balancing employment, household chores, and childcare responsibilities singlehandedly. Many expressed feelings of being “overwhelmed” and “always tired,” indicating the physical and emotional toll of managing multiple demanding roles without additional support. This constant juggling often led to exhaustion and reduced quality time available for their children, which could negatively impact both the parents’ well-being and the children’s development. The strain of these competing demands aligns with Nomaguchi’s (2012) findings, which highlight how work-family conflict can undermine parenting effectiveness by increasing stress levels and reducing parental involvement.

In addition, several participants reported that irregular or long working hours compounded these difficulties, leaving them with little opportunity for rest or self-care. This imbalance sometimes resulted in missed appointments for the children’s health or educational activities, further exacerbating childcare challenges. The pressure to simultaneously fulfill breadwinning and caregiving roles underscores the need for supportive community programs and policies aimed at easing the burden on single parents.

Limited Access to Quality Childcare

Financial constraints and inadequate community infrastructure compelled many single parents to depend on informal childcare arrangements. Participants frequently highlighted the scarcity of affordable crèches or daycare centers within Mutoko District, which limited their options for safe and reliable childcare during working hours. One parent noted, “The nearest crèche is too expensive and far, so I have no choice but to leave my child with neighbors.”

This lack of accessible formal childcare services forced parents to seek alternatives that were often less secure or structured.

Many participants expressed concerns about the quality of care provided by relatives or neighbors, describing it as inconsistent or insufficient for their children’s needs. Several parents mentioned that relatives often lacked the time or resources to give proper attention, leading to feelings of worry and guilt. One participant shared, “Sometimes, my child comes home hungry or tired because the relative was busy.”These challenges mirror findings by Brooks-Gunn and Han (1997), who identified that single-parent households frequently face obstacles in accessing quality childcare, which can adversely affect children’s early development and wellbeing.

Emotional and Psychological Stress

The combined pressures of financial hardship, demanding work schedules, and limited access to quality childcare placed significant emotional strain on many single parents in the study. Participants frequently described feelings of loneliness, isolation, and overwhelming responsibility as they managed all caregiving duties on their own. Several parents reported experiencing anxiety and symptoms of depression, which made it difficult for them to maintain emotional strength and resilience. One participant explained, “It’s hard to always be strong when you’re doing everything alone,” capturing the ongoing emotional burden faced by single parents. This sense of emotional exhaustion often compounded the challenges of managing daily tasks such as providing food, ensuring school attendance, and meeting healthcare needs.

These emotional difficulties directly affected the parents’ capacity to care effectively for their children. The stress associated with juggling multiple roles without adequate support diminished some parents’ ability to consistently provide nurturing and attentive care. Such mental health challenges can reduce patience, increase irritability, and limit the time and energy available for positive interactions with children. These findings echo Cairney et al. (2003), who highlight the strong connection between parental mental wellbeing and caregiving effectiveness. When parents suffer from ongoing emotional distress, their ability to foster a supportive and stimulating environment for child development may be compromised, which can have lasting effects on the children’s emotional and social growth.

Effects of Poor Parenting Practices on Early Childhood Development Learners

Challenges in childcare practices were associated with adverse outcomes in children’s academic and psychological development.

Academic Achievement

Early childhood development (ECD) learners from single-parent households in the study showed noticeably lower academic performance, particularly in foundational subjects such as arithmetic, reading, and spelling. Many parents and educators reported that these children struggled with basic numeracy and literacy skills compared to their peers from two-parent families. The lower academic achievement is likely linked to several factors, including limited access to learning materials, reduced parental time for homework support, and financial constraints that affect educational resources. These findings support Akgun and Akgun’s (2010) study in Turkey, which found that children raised in single-parent families often face academic disadvantages. Additionally, Duncan and Brooks-Gunn (1997) emphasize that limited household resources, such as income and educational support, contribute significantly to poorer educational outcomes in children from single-parent households. This academic gap has implications for long-term educational success and social mobility, highlighting the need for targeted support for children in such family structures.

Psychological Challenges

Alongside academic difficulties, many children from single-parent families exhibited a range of psychological and behavioral challenges. Educators reported frequent instances of anxiety, social withdrawal, and disruptive behaviors in the classroom. These children were often described as “withdrawn,” showing reluctance to participate in group activities and sometimes isolating themselves from peers. Behavioral issues such as bullying, aggression, and frequent absenteeism were also noted, which negatively impacted their social development and school experience. Such emotional and behavioral problems may stem from the instability or stress within the home environment, as well as reduced emotional support due to single parents’ multiple burdens. These observations align with the research of Amato and Fowler (2002), who documented a higher prevalence of emotional distress and behavioral difficulties among children from single-parent families. The psychological well-being of these children is crucial for their overall development and calls for integrated interventions that address both academic and emotional support needs.

CONCLUSIONS

The researchers made the following conclusions. Single parents are providing their children with clothing, food, healthcare, moral and social support and safe and healthy environment. These practices are not efficiently and effectively practiced due to various challenges which these parents’ encounter. Poverty, lack of adequate support from relatives and government and busy schedules due to work commitment and other chores are the major factors that are crippling single parents in effectively implementing the best childcare practices as stipulated by WHO and UNICEF. As parents are financially handicapped, they find it difficult to provide their children with adequate nutritious food, decent shelter, adequate clothing and have easy access to quality healthcare services. Poor childcare practices have adverse effects on child’s cognitive, moral and social development. There are wide range of strategies that can be adopted in order to enhance the effective implementation of childcare practices such measures include enhancing the economic and social empowerment of single parents, training them on best childcare practices and engaging competent child minders.

RECOMMENDATIONS

In view of the above conclusions, it was recommended that: 

1. The Social Welfare department and local leadership should provide single parents with access to safety nets and social protection schemes to help reduce financial hardships that limit their ability to provide adequate nutrition, education, and healthcare for their children.
2. Single parents should be encouraged to spend more quality time with their children to reinforce social and moral values, as well as assist with academic work, which can help improve their children’s cognitive and intellectual development despite the challenges of managing time and responsibilities alone.
3. NGOs and donors should target single parents facing economic difficulties by supporting their social and economic empowerment, enabling them to access or afford quality childcare services and reduce reliance on informal or substandard care.
4. Emotional and psychological support services should be made available to single parents to address the stress, anxiety, and depression reported, which negatively impact their caregiving capacity and overall family wellbeing.

Suggestions for further research

This study only explored the childcare practices that are being done by single parents, this study did not give a detailed analysis on the effects of adverse effects on poor childcare practices on child development. Therefore, future researchers can pick up from where this study left off and go on to the implications of poor childcare practices by single parents on child development

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