The Intersection of Antiracism and Feminism in Kidd’s the Invention of Wings

The Intersection of Antiracism and Feminism in Kidd’s the Invention of Wings

Firdauzy, G.M.Q., Cahyawati, E*, Wardhani, Y.K., Basuki, I., Murti, G.H., Wardani, L.D.P.

English Department, University of Jember, Indonesia

^*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.906000283

Received: 15 June 2025; Accepted: 18 June 2025; Published: 11 July 2025

ABSTRACT

This research explores the representation of antiracism and feminism in the historical fiction novel The Invention of Wings by Sue Monk Kidd. It is an intriguing study because 19th-century slavery and the patriarchal culture set in the story are brought back to the 21st-century audience. This research aims to explain how antiracism and feminism represented in the novel reveal the writer’s critical position. Therefore, this qualitative study employs Hall’s representation theory, which relates the textual analysis of the novel to contextual analysis to disclose the author’s critical agenda. The result of the study demonstrates how antiracism and feminism are portrayed in the novel through dehumanization and career limitations experienced by white and black female protagonists. However, the story represents that intersectionality can be encountered through interracial sisterhood. In the novel, the White and Black female characters stand with one another in the struggle for racial and gender equality.

Furthermore, by connecting textual analysis of injustices of slavery and patriarchy in the story to contextual analysis of contemporary issues of the antiracist and feminist movement, Sue Monk Kidd’s ideological agenda is revealed. Kidd emphasizes the ongoing relevance of the novel in contemporary society, condemns gender and racial bias, and draws attention to the injustices suppressed women suffer. Ultimately, Kidd advocates for white and black women to work together in the fight for gender and racial equality.

Keywords: representation; intersection; antiracism; feminism; Kidd’s The Invention of Wings

INTRODUCTION

Being a woman was challenging because society often viewed women as less important and inferior. Women were treated as second-class citizens in patriarchal societies(Xhaho et al., 2021). For women of color, the situation is even more challenging because they face both gender discrimination and racial issues. (Bakan, A. B. & Dua, 2014). Antiracism is crucial in the fight against racial discrimination and inequality. Furthermore, feminism is a movement aimed at ending sexism and the mistreatment of women (hooks, 2000). When these two ideas come together, intersectionality challenges patriarchal power structures and aims to free Black women while fighting white supremacy. The intersectionality shows that race and gender are not just added together, like being Black and being a woman. Instead, they interact to form unique experiences. A Black woman faces racism and sexism in ways that differ from a white woman because her identity is intersectional (Crenshaw, 1989). Patricia Hill Collins, a leading Black feminist, further develops the concept of the “matrix of domination,” illustrating how double forces of racial and gender oppression are organized as mutually dependent within cultural and historical contexts (2020).

This research analyzes the intersection, particularly antiracism and feminism, in Sue Monk Kidd’s The Invention of Wings. This novel is categorized as a historical fiction genre due to the story taking place in the past. Since the novel’s plot is set in the 1800s and published in 2014, it is interesting to investigate why themes like slavery and patriarchal culture are brought back to the 21st-century audience. It is assumed that the issue above is still relevant today. The story tracks the relationship between two women of different races. It centers on Sarah Grimké, an affluent white girl who receives an enslaved Black person named Handful for her eleventh birthday. Sarah becomes aware of Handful’s misery, which motivates her to resist slavery. Sarah, a white abolitionist, and Handful, an enslaved Black woman, can create inter-racial sisterhood despite their very different experiences of oppression. It is in line with what Crenshaw states that current intersectionality identifies overlapping oppressions and looks at the opportunities and challenges involved in creating solidarity and taking collective action among different social groups (1991)

Previous research contributes to this study by providing relevant references related to the topic or similar subjects. Annisa et al. (2024) examine the challenges faced by Ida Mae Jones, a woman of color in the 1940s, as she seeks education and employment. It illustrates how issues of race, gender, and class make it difficult for her to achieve independence. The study points out that society continues to marginalize women like Ida and stresses the importance of addressing these interconnected issues when discussing equality.

Liyana and Baisel (2023) emphasized racial connections and social unfairness through the lens of oppression and power. They also explored how Black characters fight hard for their freedom while holding onto their beliefs. This journal helps build a foundation for understanding interracial relationships that could help lessen racial differences between groups.

Utami (2021) utilizes Crenshaw’s theory of intersectionality to explore how race and gender intersect in the final chapter of the Harry Potter series. This study focuses on how diverse racial and economic groups are represented in the wizarding community, especially during the Battle of Hogwarts. It demonstrates the importance of attacking systemic injustice and discrimination, along with the patriarchal values and social norms presented in the story. Overall, this research raises the understanding of intersectionality concerning race and gender.

Cahyawati et al. (2024) explore how gender, sexuality, and race intersect in Reid’s The Seven Husbands of Evelyn Hugo. The study shows that these types of oppression come from societal views that support one another. Reid’s story challenges these unfair systems and promotes awareness, empathy, and justice. The study shows how important it is to tackle these overlapping issues to change societal norms and promote equality.

 This research looks into a new aspect that previous studies have not covered. While it addresses similar themes of feminism and the intersectionality of race and gender, this study is distinctive in its focus on the role of white women in supporting Black women. In contrast to other studies that concentrate solely on the victim’s experience, this research delves into the concept of interracial sympathy, which is the idea that white women who understand and support Black people also seek to combat racism.

Using representation theory by Stuart Hall, the study explores how the meaning of antiracism and feminism are constructed. Hall (1997) explains that representation is a process of constructing meaning. Literary texts are active participants in the social production of meaning rather than passive ones. By analyzing how a text constructs its representations, we can successfully reveal the ideologies implied in a literary work, discovering the writer’s ideological agenda.

Therefore, the main objective of this research is to study the meaning constructed through the representation of antiracism and feminism experienced by two principal female characters in the novel. This study tries to reveal the author’s critical stance on these issues and find any underlying agendas that may affect her writing.II.

METHOD

Creswell (2018) emphasizes that non-numerical data, such as literary text, is fundamental to qualitative studies. Thus, this research is qualitative as the data are derived from the narrations, dialogues, and other statements from The Invention of Wings by Kidd (2014). This qualitative study is essential for interpreting meaning constructed through the representation of antiracism and feminism within the novel, uncovering the writer’s critical position on these issues

This research collects two types of data: primary and secondary data. The primary data comes from Kidd’s 2014 novel The Invention of Wings. Close reading is conducted to comprehend the whole story and uncover the cases of antiracism and feminism experienced by both black and white female characters in the novel. Furthermore, secondary data is gathered from various sources, including scholarly articles, websites, and essays exploring specific historical settings portrayed in the novel. They are about slavery, women’s history, and abolitionist movements in 19^th-century America. Additionally, since the historical novel was produced in 2014, the socio-cultural background of the novel production is also investigated. It refers to the cultural context of antiracism and feminism in 21^st-century America.

The analysis starts with textual analysis by examining how white and black female characters face oppression and fight against racial and gender discrimination in the novel. Then, it is important to place it within its historical setting, which is the antebellum South during the time of slavery and early abolitionism, as well as the cultural background of its writing, which is racial and feminist movements in the modern period when Sue Monk Kidd wrote the novel. This dual contextualization allows for a more nuanced understanding of the intersectionality of race and gender represented in the novel. Relating textual and contextual analysis can reveal the critical position of the writer.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The discussions are divided into two parts: the representation of antiracism and feminism in the novel and the writer’s critical position.

A. The Intersection of Antiracism and Feminism in The Invention of Wings

This section focuses on three key aspects of the intersection between antiracism and feminism such as dehumanization, restrictions on careers, and interracial sisterhood.

Dehumanization

This subchapter depicts the concept of antiracism since dehumanization is a crucial concept within this context. Historically, racist dehumanization has been used to validate viciousness and mistreatment against Black people, reinforcing their marginalized position in society (Jardine & Piston, 2023). Based on this racist dehumanization, antiracism aims to encounter the continuing violence perpetrated by white people. As Davis (2017) explains, antiracism combines theory and action to combat racial prejudice, oppression, and discrimination at personal, cultural, and institutional levels. Dehumanization is an issue that influences people’s interactions and societal structures. When humanity is denied to individuals or groups, it becomes easier to justify acts of aggression and brutality. Howe et al. (2022) emphasized that Black Americans have historically faced dehumanization. Smith (2011) defines dehumanization as portraying or treating someone as less than human. For instance, enslaved Africans in the US were considered as three-fifths of a person, treated as property, and subjected to physical and mental abuse, stripping them of dignity and humanity. Evidence of dehumanization is portrayed in Kidd (2014); in one instance, Handful is given to Sarah as a slave as a birthday present. This narration shows dehumanization: Missus says, “This is our little Handful. Sarah, dear, she is your present, your very own waiting maid” (Kidd, 2014, p. 16). Here, Missus regards Handful as a subhuman creature rather than a human being. Since Enlightenment ideas about equality and freedom clashed with slavery, Black people were forced into a status below that of humans (Bempah, 2017). The story follows Handful and her mother striving for freedom, aiming to buy their freedom. Handful discovers that she and her mother are valued at only 500 dollars and listed as goods and chattels. Because of this, she feels worthless as her master denies her individuality and humanity.

The Invention of Wings by Sue Monk Kidd (2014) is set in the early 1800s, a time when enslaved African Americans faced extremely harsh and dehumanizing conditions. They were treated as property without legal rights, enduring physical punishment and psychological abuse. Slavery represents a severe form of domination, where the master holds almost total power, leaving the slave utterly powerless (Patterson, 1982). This created a climate of constant fear among enslaved couples, as owners could sell them at any moment, causing children to cry and chase after their mothers. With little control over their lives, slaves had no means to resist the decisions made by their masters, who dictated every aspect of their work and daily existence (Berlin, 2009). As a result, slaves could not possess honor or a sense of independent social identity, leading to a lack of recognized value in society.

In the 21st Century, racism against Black people remains a significant issue in the United States, despite legal developments aimed at encouraging equality. Although there have been many activities and movements, discrimination is still severely ingrained in social structures. Hartman (2022) stated that slavery’s origins are linked to the persistent problem of racism and its ongoing impact on Black lives. Consequently, discrimination continues to manifest through humiliation, oppression, and degradation of Black people today. The disparities in facilities provided to Black communities are still pronounced. A Pew Research Center survey (Agiesta & Levy, 2022) found that 82% of Black Americans consider racial prejudice a significant issue, and 79% report experiencing discrimination based on their race.

Therefore, Handful’s experience of dehumanization arises from her identity as she is only a Black female slave. Despite her circumstances, she refuses to give up and instead seeks ways to combat the horrors of slavery. Nicolas and Thompson (2019) explain that Black individuals have responded to the violence they face in various ways, including both passive endurance and active resistance, to highlight its injustice. When marginalized racial groups face unfair treatment, they often engage in antiracist actions to regain control over their lives (Omi & Winant, 2015). By the end of the story, Handful, who is worn out of the cruel slavery, heroically escapes to the North. After enduring frequent dehumanization and viciousness, she gets the chance to break free.

Restrictions on Career

The novel The Invention of Wings also portrays the restrictions on career, as the main female character confronts these barriers. Nawaz et al. (2021) define career restrictions for women as obstacles and limited opportunities in the job market, along with cultural norms that prevent their entry into public professions. Throughout history, women globally have faced various forms of discrimination and hardship, including denied access to education and career opportunities (Nawaz et al., 2021). Long-standing societal norms and systemic discrimination often obstruct women’s ambitions. Traditionally, a patriarchal society expected women to manage household chores and caregiving rather than pursue careers outside the home like men (Xhaho et al., 2021; Yilmaz & Ledwith, 2017). The main white female character, Sarah Grimké, aspired to be a lawyer, inspired by her father, a prominent attorney and chief judge of the South Carolina Supreme Court. Despite living in the 1800s when it was uncommon for women to become lawyers, Sarah was determined to be the first female lawyer in her city. Her desire to pursue law intensified as she became increasingly intolerant of slavery and the injustices around her. However, when she expressed her ambition to become a jurist, her father reacted with disapproval.

“One day, I intend to follow in your footsteps. . . . . . To become a jurist.” When Father found his tongue, his tone was full of amusement. “Did my ears deceive? Did you say you would follow your brother to the bar?” John twittered, and Fredrick laughed outright. Father looked at them and smiled, continuing, “Are there female jurists now? If so, little one, do enlighten us.” Their hilarity burst forth, and I saw Thomas, too, was laughing (Kidd, 2014).

From the quotation above, despite her dreams of becoming a lawyer, Sarah faced mockery from her father and brother regarding her ambitions. At that time, societal norms made it unimaginable for a woman to pursue a legal career. According to Fajriyah (2016), gender is a socially constructed idea that controls how men and women behave in society. This concept influences behavior on both individual and institutional levels. It regulates how cultural gender expectations affect daily interactions and the structure of society. Consequently, gender-based distinctions in societal regulations manifest in areas like professional careers, education, and other established systems. Generally, men are more dominant in fields such as law, the military, and politics, whereas women are usually assigned roles concerning domestic tasks (Worthy et al., 2020).

When Sarah still tries to continue her desire to become the first female jurist, her father rejects it, calling her ambitions nonsense and shameful to the family. His choice was shaped by patriarchal views regarding gender roles, which are rooted in cultural traditions (Worthy et al., 2020). Social role theory suggests that perceptions of gender originate from the responsibilities stereotypically given to each sex (Wood & Eagly, 2002). Women were expected to manage household duties, whereas men were viewed as the main breadwinners. In a patriarchal society, women are often viewed as inferior, emotional, and submissive, while men are seen as superior, rational, and assertive (Tyson, 2006). Sarah eventually realized she had no choice but to obey her father, as society’s gender norms prevented her from challenging traditional roles and pursuing a career as a lawyer.

In the 1800s, women faced significant limitations due to gender role stereotypes, which made them powerless and lacking self-control. These stereotypes were a significant source of gender inequality, affecting women in politics, society, culture, and economics (Wani & Dastidar, 2018). In 1873, the US Supreme Court ruling in Bradwell v. Illinois allowed states to prevent women from practicing law, stating that a woman’s primary role was as a wife and mother (Palmer, 2001). However, by the mid-1980s, women began breaking down these barriers and entering male-dominated fields such as law and law enforcement (Marshall, 2013).

In the 21st Century, women’s roles in the workplace have significantly changed. They are no longer limited to domestic duties and now work alongside men in various fields such as business, education, healthcare, politics, and technology (Agrawal & Joglekar, 2013). While most countries no longer have legal barriers preventing women from becoming lawyers, issues like gender bias and unequal representation persist in the legal profession. O’Neil et al. (2008) note that although women’s career development is similar to men’s, it is more complex due to challenges created by gendered social environments.

Interracial Sisterhood

The Invention of Wings portrays an interracial sisterhood that reflects antiracism and feminist values. Liyana and Baisel (2023) argue that interracial interaction can reduce implicit bias and discrimination. Sisterhood, a key element of second-wave feminism, helped women unite with shared goals and support each other in the movement (Evans, 2015). Interracial sisterhood involves mutual support among women from diverse backgrounds, fostering understanding and promoting equal treatment. In the novel, despite Handful working as Sarah’s maid, they form a bond based on friendship rather than hierarchy, helping each other explore their identities. Sarah’s efforts to return Handful to her mother in hopes of her freedom illustrate her resistance to slavery. “Mother, please, let me. . . . . . let me give Handful back to you.” Give Handful back. As if she was mine after all. As if owning people was as natural as breathing. For all my resistance to slavery, I breathed that foul air, too. (Kidd, 2014).

Sarah’s parents were disappointed and upset by her actions, viewing her refusal to accept Handful as her slave as overreacting and strange. For her parents, owning slaves was normal, and they pressured Sarah to accept Handful’s status. Slavery was vital to the economy in the southern United States (Gouda, M., & Rigterink, 2017). As a result, many Americans resisted abolition because it threatened their financial interests (Williams, 2012).

Raised in a white community that supported slavery and racial discrimination, Sarah Grimké became aware of the racist attitudes around her. She felt ashamed to be part of such a society. Over time, she empathized with the suffering of enslaved Black people and decided to act. Instead of assigning typical duties to Handful, Sarah defied the law by teaching her to read and write, fulfilling a promise she had made to Handful’s mother, Charlotte, to one day free her. When Sarah’s sister Mary discovered Handful’s writings, she informed their parents, leading to Sarah’s punishment. Her father was furious that she had broken the law, as teaching a slave to read was illegal. Sarah was banned from the library, reading, and attending Latin lessons. Despite this, her resolve to fight against slavery only grew stronger. Witnessing the brutal treatment of Handful and feeling personally connected to her suffering, Sarah made it her life’s mission to fight for the rights of African Americans.

Through her interracial relationship with Handful, Sarah Grimké discovered her life’s purpose. Interracial interaction reduces racial discrimination (Onyeador et al., 2020). Despite facing many challenges, Sarah became an abolitionist, dedicating her life to challenging the negative stereotypes of Black people in white society. As a Quaker, she was also part of a despised group, seen as disruptive to the status quo. Despite threats, Sarah remained steadfast in her fight for justice. She and her sister Nina wrote and distributed anti-slavery pamphlets, eventually leading to an invitation to join the American Anti-Slavery Society (AASS). Over time, Sarah’s fight for the end of slavery grew into a broader movement for equality, addressing both racial and gender disparities. She began advocating for the liberation of both Black people and women.

In the past, sisterhood played a crucial role in second-wave feminism, fostering unity and purpose while strengthening the feminist movement (Morgan, 1970). Despite facing jealousy, rivalries, and differences in class, race, and education, women began to bond over shared experiences of oppression and gender discrimination in a male-dominated society. Black and white women formed alliances based on these struggles and their desire for social justice. Many sisterhoods emerged from abolitionist movements, where women united to fight for civil rights and against racial discrimination (Salenius, 2017).

In the 21st Century, interracial sisterhood continues to evolve with movements supporting gender and racial equality. Women are forming strategic alliances to help each other overcome systemic barriers, with men joining as allies in the fight for fairness. Modernization has promoted the concept of distinct roles for men and women and the ideals of “true womanhood” across society (Hewitt, 2012). Because of this, the rights of women and people of color have emerged as significant issues for society and the government today (Sari, 2023). However, public awareness of gender and racial discrimination remains low in America. Despite this, activism, policy changes, and cultural shifts are increasingly challenging systemic racism and gender inequality.

B. The Writer’s Critical Position

Kidd was born and raised in Sylvester, Georgia. She completed her nursing degree at Texas Christian University in 1970 and began her nursing instructor career before transitioning to writing. Raised in a predominantly white community that was deeply prejudiced and supported racial segregation and inequality, she saw the difficulties Black people faced during voting (Liyana & Baisel, 2023). Also stated by Liyana and Baisel (2023), Kidd’s childhood memories were filled with African American women who inspired her. As a result, she focuses much of her writing on the racial injustices faced by African Americans.

Kidd’s The Invention of Wings depicts antiracism set in the 1800s and published in 2014. Although it has been many years since the Slavery era, stories from that period still resonate. In an interview with The New York Times (2014), Kidd said that even though the slavery era is over, the legacy of slavery has evolved and improved. Society is still affected by the legacy of slavery and the unfairness in race relations, which is why these issues are still relevant in contemporary times.

The most important event during Kidd’s writing period was the shooting of Trayvon Martin in February 2012. Martin’s death heightened the national debate about the ongoing issues of racism and triggered widespread anger. It exposed deep divisions regarding race, justice, and racial profiling. People became more aware of systemic racism and how the history of slavery still affects modern forms of racism. This incident acted as a spark for large-scale protests and was crucial for the rise of the Black Lives Matter movement (Brown,2014).

Moreover, when the novel was created in 2014, efforts to connect antiracist and feminist movements were strongly seen. It became clear that race and gender oppression are linked; they work together to create intersectionality. Third Wave Feminism focuses on intersectionality and inclusivity. It aims to include the experiences of women of color as well as women from different racial and class backgrounds. This acknowledges the varied experiences of women’s oppression (Howard University Law Library, n.d.).

Relating the socio-cultural context to the story, Kidd’s critical position can be revealed. The Invention of Wings reflects her commitment to addressing the intersections of antiracism and feminism. Kidd draws on her personal experiences growing up in a racially segregated Southern community, which profoundly influenced her understanding of racial injustices. Through the characters of Sarah Grimké and Handful, she explores the struggles against both slavery and patriarchal oppression. Kidd emphasizes the importance of interracial sisterhood and the need for women from diverse racial backgrounds to unite in their fight for equality.

In her narrative, Kidd highlights how societal norms historically restricted women’s careers and opportunities, particularly for white women like Sarah, who aspired to be a lawyer despite facing familial disapproval and societal barriers. She portrays Sarah’s journey as an abolitionist who empathizes with enslaved individuals, showcasing her dedication to racial and gender equality.

Kidd’s work recounts historical injustices and connects them to contemporary issues of racism and gender inequality. She aims to inspire readers to empathize with the experiences of those affected by slavery and to recognize that while progress has been made, significant challenges remain in achieving true equality. Ultimately, Kidd advocates for collaboration among women to fight for freedom, justice, and equality, underscoring the ongoing relevance of these themes in today’s society.

CONCLUSION

This research uses Hall’s (1997) theory of representation in examining meaning constructed through how antiracism and feminism intersect in Sue Monk Kidd’s The Invention of Wings. It examines how the novel represents these themes to show Kidd’s critical position on racial and gender discrimination.

The novel brings together the lives of Sarah Grimké, a white abolitionist, and Handful, an enslaved Black woman. It highlights their struggles against systemic oppression in Charleston during the 1800s. The story focuses on three main aspects: first, the dehumanization suffered by Handful, the Black woman, and her search for freedom; second, the challenges Sarah Grimké, the white woman, faces due to career restrictions set by society; and third, the interracial sisterhood that fosters understanding and support between Grimké and Handful. Here, the narrative addresses racial and gender discrimination through resistance to slavery and the constraints of a patriarchal society experienced by the two main female characters.

This analysis of the novel is contextualized by placing it within the historical context of the antebellum South during slavery time and considering the cultural background of the racial and feminist movements in the 21st Century in which Sue Monk Kidd wrote the novel. As a result, Kidd’s ideological position is revealed. Kidd critiques the double-layered oppression of women and emphasizes empathy. Representing historical racial and gender injustices in the 19th Century in the novel for contemporary audiences, she advocates for racial and gender justice, freedom, and equality.

At last, while the study focuses on one historical novel, future research could compare The Invention of the Wings with other contemporary historical fiction about the antebellum South from various authors with different racial and gender backgrounds. Diverse authors tell unique stories about intersectionality, cultural background, and ideological views. This comparative study can expose potential biases that come from different authorial perspectives.

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