Post-Memory: Migration and Return

Post-Memory: Migration and Return

Dr. Siti Noor Aisyah Hasnan¹, Dr. Evanna Devi^2*, Dr. Nadia Safura Zabidin³

^1,2Academy of Language Studies, University Technology Mara, UiTM Pahang, 26400 Bandar Tun Abdul Razak Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia

³ Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Mara, UiTM Pahang, 26400 Bandar Tun Abdul Razak Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.909000411

Received: 10 September 2025; Accepted: 15 September 2025; Published: 13 October 2025

ABSTRACT

This paper investigated Alice Pung’s portrayals of post-memory and her return as a second-generation subject of both memory and migration, in her life-writing, Her Father’s Daughter (2012). Marriane Hirsch (1996, 2008, 2012), post-memory refers to inherited or second-hand traumatic memory which is often passed across generations. Interestingly, Watkins (2016) proposed ‘diasporic slide’ as she believed that diasporic condition and consciousness can be transferred to second-generation children, similar to when memory is transferred across generations. Hirsch (1996, 2008, 2012), Hirsch and Spitzer (2002), Hoffman (2004) examined the intricacy of return that is not always physical but, abstract. Alice Pung and her memoir are subjected to the entanglements of post-memory and return as she has written how her father’s first-hand experiences of Cambodia’s genocide have affected her life in Australia and triggered her emotional and physical return. She is not only ‘Asian’ through inheritance but, she also carries the burden of her father’s past. This paper discovered that Pung’s ‘return’ reflected post-memory as she could not make sense of her physical return to her father’s or ancestor’s hometown. Pung is unable to return physically but, she often returns to her post-memory as her father has passed his first-hand experiences of traumatic past.

Keywords— Alice Pung, Memory, Migration, Post-memory, Return

INTRODUCTION

Second-generation authors begin to write narratives of past events which are related to their family memories and migrant experiences. They are not only subjected to their Asian ancestry but, parents’ and grandparents’ memories and experiences they receive as they live in close proximity with those who have experienced past events. As they were born only after significant past events or history, those memories are transferred or transmitted from those who have first-hand experiences of those events. Firstly, post-memory is a term coined by Hirsch (1996, 2008, 2012) as she studied literary works and visual arts of generations of victims and survivours of the Holocaust as well as those who were scattered as a result of the war. Hirsch believed that second-generation authors or artists portray the aftermath of traumatic experiences through their literary works or artworks. Even though second-generation authors do not go through what their parents and ancestors have gone through, those past experiences indirectly become their own remembrances as they seem to embody the same repercussions of traumatic experiences, in the present.

Just as memory is transmitted to second-generations and it becomes post-memory, Watkins (2016) revealed that the condition and consciousness of diaspora and being in the diaspora can also be transmitted from parents to their children. Second-generation children are aware that they are different from their other counterparts as their parents are embedded with the baggage of the past which is also related to migration. Some first-generations are attached to a place left behind and memories they cannot erase. This is obvious when second-generations are influenced by their parents’ past as they search for a sense of belonging in the current place they were born and brought up at. Moreover, Hirsch herself has experienced the difficulty of living with her parents’ trauma as they are survivours of the Holocaust. Hirsch’s post-memory is also related to exiles and return as people were scattered in the aftermath of genocide. Apart from post-memory itself, Hirsch also embodied the second-generations who returned and visited their ancestral hometown where their parents and grandparents lived before the Holocaust. Thus, it is noteworthy to examine post-memory and return in relation to literary writings which narrate memory and post-memory and migration.

Alice Pung’s Her Father’s Daughter (HFD) (2012) narrates post-memory as the protagonist, Alice or Pung herself resonates with the memory of Cambodia’s genocide that she does not directly experience. Pung’s growing up in Australia is disrupted by the idea that her father is different, not only because of his status as an ‘Asian’ but, his first-hand traumatic remembrances of Cambodia’s genocide. Even though she is the second-generation subject of both ‘memory’ and ‘migration’, she feels the need to explore her father’s past in order to comprehend his ways of life which have also affected hers. In HFD, she reveals that her father wants to disregard the painful repercussion of having to live through the genocide. However, Pung’s father’s façade that things are normal after the genocide leads to Pung’s curiosity to discover his past as well as his ancestry. That is why she decides to return. She returns to both China and Cambodia as she traces her father’s ancestry and his trauma. Following Hirsch’s (1996, 2008, 2012) ‘post-memory’ and Hirsch’s and Spitzer’s (2002) as well as Hoffman’s (2004) ‘return’ and Watkins’s (2016) ‘diasporic slides’, this study examined how one’s post-memory: memory that is ‘inherited’ from first-generation subjects, influences one’s feelings and reactions when returning to the memory of a place left behind and the geographical place itself.

LITERATURE REVIEW

This part highlighted relevant literatures pertaining to post-memory and return in literary writings especially writings related to diaspora and/or transnationalism. In the literary tradition of Asian diasporic writing, there is a newer development of literary criticism or scholarship which discuss memory and post-memory in the context of migration and diaspora. For instance, Athanasiades (2016), portrayed the intermingling between imaginary and the reality of being and living as a British subject through My Ear at His Heart (2004), a memoir by Hanif Kureishi, following the trajectory of his cultural roots or his father’s past. Focussing on memory, Rascanu (2019) discussed ‘(post)diaspora’ as a means of recollection in Nadeem Aslam’s Maps for Lost Lovers (2004). Rascanu investigated the relationship of personal memory and history of the partition between India and Pakistan as he clarified the memory which is not experienced personally for subsequent generations but, whose parents describe what they have experienced in the past.

Butt (2019) analysed transcultural memory and post-memory through Two Lives (2015), written by Vikram Seth. In the memoir, he portrayed his uncle’s and aunt’s past experiences of the Holocaust, from his perspectives as an Indian subject. Through discovering the past, he visualised and explored personal, familial and collective past which were beyond cultural and geographical. Meanwhile, Phung (2012) examined Larissa Lai’s literary texts and, she did not use ‘post-diaspora’, instead, she observed ‘diasporisation’. She figured out that parents’ diaspora has affected second-generations as they often struggle for a sense of belonging and home. She described how Chinese diasporic characters inherit their parents’ diasporic consciousness which are visible when they reside in Canada. This leads to their curiosity and desire to retrace their ancestry and past events they do not have first-hand experiences of.

In addition, Lu (2023) elucidated Chinese diasporic subjects in North America through representations of children’s connections to parents’ past. Lu’s focus in her studies was the thing left behind in the present, in the aftermath of traumatic past. She used ‘memory restoration’ and she observed how children relate to past experiences, history and period that they did not belong to, through lenses of being in the diaspora. Likewise, Vicera (2021) scrutinised representations of collective memory and post-memory in relation to trauma of being dislocated through film and literary writings. She emphasised the process of remembering and re-membering as an act of finding and building identity through dislocation. She believed that diasporic literary texts often represent ‘dual displacement’, of time and space as they portray the relationship of the past and the present and, their birthplace and the place they reside in after migration.

Similarly, according to Kim and Lee (2025), diasporic literary representations revealed the complexities of discourses on memory, migration and post nationalism. They observed two different authors who have crossed border and portrayed the experiences of living outside homeland while juggling both homeland and host land, in the present. One of the authors, a Korean American, Min Ji Lee whose famous literary work, Pachinko, established that the issues surrounding diasporic identity and consciousness are intricate as diasporic characters struggle with national identity as their family members transfer past experiences related to migration and discrimination they do not witness first-handedly. In the present, subsequent-generations acknowledge the need to negotiate their identity and sense of belonging.

Apart from that, in the context of Asian-Australian specifically, Anne Brewster (2017) examined Alice Pung’s HFD to scrutinise how Pung uses ‘ethnic minority life-writing’ specifically memoir as a genre to portray memory and post-memory of violence during Cambodia’s genocide. Pung’s father is one of the survivors who has migrated to Australia. The transgenerational influences of the remembrance of violence to familial institutions are enunciated within diaspora subjectivities. Hermanoczki (2017) discussed HFD and she argued how geographical places influence one’s memory and post-memory. She clarified that Pung’s father’s memory has been transmitted to Pung as a second-generation, allowing her to learn and acknowledge the previous place left behind by her parents. The previous place, being Cambodia, is the place her father misremembers and the exact same place he wanted to erase. Following Hermanoczki’s discussion on physical places and how they trigger remembrances of past events, we second that it is germane to study the relationships of post-memory and diaspora and/or transnationalism as remembrances of past events are not only enhanced when those who have migrated or those who are conscious of being in the diaspora re-visit the geographical space but, more often than not, they remember past events in the present home.

METHOD

This paper applied textual analysis as we analysed a literary text specifically life-writing or memoir, Her Father’s Daughter (2012). Textual analysis of select life-writing is significant to comprehend all the relationships of all the concepts and ideas included under subject of scrutiny. We used textual analysis to scrutinise other important materials which highlight discourses of memory and post-memory as well as other related constructs in this study like migration, diaspora, transnationalism and return.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Post-memory: Of migration

Alice Pung’s Her Father’s Daughter (HFD) (2012) narrates the complexities of post-memory of Cambodia’s genocide and migration. As a second-generation who shares and inherits her father’s memory, Pung has written an extensive work that reflects Cambodia’s genocide as well as its relation to her father’s decision to leave his hometown. Pung, for more than once, indicates that her father does not want to remember past events as she writes, “…her father had given his children a completely different history…they were part of a Chinese culture…aware they were bonafide born-in-Australia kids…he had wiped out the most significant part of their identity” (HFD, p.214). As the character and narrator of HFD, Pung acknowledges the influence of her father’s memory and migration towards her self-construction in Australia, in the present.

Second-generations have to ponder past events which are related to their parents’ and grandparents’ migration. As Pung was born and brought up in Australia yet, she acknowledges her cultural roots and routes, she always thinks of the consequences of her family’s migration. Pung illustrates, “What would life have been like if both sets of her grandparents had never left China, never had their babies in Cambodia?… She would at least know the limits of her world” (HFD, p.13). Pung realises the possibilities of non-migration and she feels that if she were born and brought up in China, life would not be as difficult as growing up acknowledging that she is of Asian descent and at the same time, her father has gone through traumatic experiences that have altered not only his life but, hers.

Furthermore, while living in the present, it is obvious that first-generations are emotionally attached to their birthplace and origin; the baggage of the past tags along when they try to build a home in Australia. Pung writes the condition of being in the diaspora, “In Australia they were the model minority only once…their kids could speak English. And when she and her brother came home from school speaking English, her father knew it was time…they could begin anew…” (HFD, pp. 194-195). Pung presents the need to be the model minority in Australia as Kuan values Australia that has given him a second chance to live. Kuan knows that they are ready to start over once they assimilate and adapt well with Australia’s social and cultural norms especially through the means of language. She adds, “Her father had named her Alice because he believed this new country to be a Wonderland, where anything was possible if only she went along with his unfailing belief” (p.195). “If only she went along with his unfailing belief” justifies Pung’s growing up in Australia with restrictions and difficulties as her father is conscious of their identity as they are subjected to diaspora and/or transnationalism.

Pung grows up with constant reminder of both memory and migration. She portrays, “In her childhood she had grown up with survivours…they didn’t know much English…they didn’t talk about these things with people who would never understand (HFD, p. 7). Pung writes the condition of Cambodians who have gone through the genocide and left Cambodia behind, the difficulties of having to start over in Australia with limitations and consciousness as they cannot disregard the past and their origin. Hence, Pung lives in Australia while she experiences the entanglements of ‘diasporisation’ or ‘diasporic slides’ and post-memory as her father transfers both his memory and migration. This causes Pung’s present life in Australia, challenging as she is conscious of her Asian ancestry, Cambodia’s genocide and, at the same time, trying to live normally like her other Australian counterparts.

Moreover, Pung narrates the anxiety of being different in Australia: “…she began to get the jitters. Her father’s panic permeated everything so that nothing was normal anymore. His fear was casting shadows on her newly built white middle-class existence” (p. 93). While trying her best to be ‘normal’, Kuan’s fear and anxiety affect Pung as she too begins to experience similar consciousness. Her needs to be seen as normal and to be accepted by Australians are failures she has to grasp as she understands that there is no such thing as normal when it comes to being surrounded by people who have experienced trauma and migration. As Hirsch believed that the second-generations seem to embody parents’ past trauma, this is obvious in HFD as Pung mentions how she has accumulated traumatic memory that is not genuinely hers to begin with.

Her father’s memory or her post-memory justifies fear that she accumulates. No matter how normal Pung tries to be, she still needs to live with the fact that her father is a survivour of Cambodia’s genocide who cannot erase his memory of it and, he continues to live his life affected by the images of past events. Likewise, Pung slightly narrates that her mother illustrates kindred traumatising experience of migration when she is always conscious of being different in Australia. Pung writes, “And lie low, she had always been taught…’Keep quiet,’ her mother would say when the refugee boats were rolling at the beginning of the new century” (HFD, p. 80). This echoes her parents’ consciousness of being difference and as Watkins believed that ‘diasporic’ can slide through generations, the consciousness of being different is also transferred to Pung as a second-generation.

Pung adds, “Never get too close to cripples lest their cripple rub off onto you, was the way her parents saw their existence, even in Australia” (p. 208). Her parents view things differently in the aftermath and, they become protective, hence, the need to make sure their children do not have to experience what they have gone through. In short, as her parents have lived their life in Australia with constant attachments to feelings and emotions of having to opt for migration because of what has happened in the past, Pung, as a second-generation has to live with similar feelings and emotions as she figures out her parents’ migratory episodes and the past as well as her ancestry.

Return: An ambiguity

Return for the second-generations is mostly abstract as it is not always a physical one as return is also associated to the return to post-memory or parents’ memory. Hirsch (1996, 2008, 2012), Hirsch and Spitzer (2002) and Hoffman (2004) discussed both of these returns: the turn to parents’ memory and second-generations’ return to the geographical place that their parents have left behind. Those who return to their parents’ homeland for a visit, they are emotionally affected as they have been listening to stories of that particular place that they do not have the chance to explore physically. Second-generations receive those memories of past experiences from parents; thus, they cannot decipher homeland as much as they try to feel a sense of belonging somewhere else. HFD reiterates the idea of return for second-generations as Pung herself is subjected to her father’s memory of Cambodia’s genocide and a place left behind.

In HFD, Alice Pung commences her ‘return’ or the journey of finding her roots in her grandmother’s homeland in China. HFD concerns with Pung’s father, Kuan’s traumatic experiences of Cambodia’s genocide yet, Pung establishes a distinctive narrative when she begins her story in such a way that it does not even begin in Cambodia but, China.  “This story begins on a bus. The bus rolls down dirt roads, and when it stops, she will disembark and scoop up soil and kiss the land of her ancestors and tell the world how good it is to be home at last” (HFD, p.15). However, even when she tries to feel ‘at home’ in China, she cannot really connect to the idea. She discloses that, she is capable of understanding the dialect but, it is still a strange feeling as she is not familiar with the land. She clarifies the fact that her story ‘begins on a bus’ for several times as she is figuring out whether her decision of beginning her narrative of Cambodia’s genocide, outside of Cambodia is a good decision after all.

Pung denotes that, as a writer, she can write anything that she wants to her readers as they are not with her during the journey, perhaps, portraying emotions that she feels ‘at home’ eventually and the readers will never know whether she tells the truth or not. Pung then conveys, “Now comes the part where she is supposed to write that she feels home at last…But she can’t lie. It doesn’t happen” (HFD, p.17). This proposes that Pung’s return to the geographical place itself in the search of certain ‘feeling’ that she is supposed to feel when she explores her cultural routes. However, when visiting her grandparents’ homeland, she is not capable of connecting to it in such a way that it feels familiar or that she belongs. She agrees to the title given by some children on the street: they call her ‘foreign ghost’. She admits that she is a foreigner in her ancestral homeland as she fails to feel any sense of connection to China.

Pung explains further that, her grandmother’s version of China is different from what she witnesses, considering temporal factors and a lot of changes have occurred; “The more she sees of modern Chaozhou, the more the world her grandmother had told her about recedes” (HFD, p.17). This suggests that her grandmother’s memory cannot really help Pung to re-connect with her roots since China itself has changed throughout the years. Later, towards the end of the memoir, when she goes back to China for the second time, Pung writes, “Returning to the city was like meeting a familiar foreign friend (p. 221)”. Even when she feels that China is familiar, it is still ‘alien’ and perhaps, she feels like an outsider in her grandmother’s homeland.

Apart from her exploration of China to discover her roots, Pung emphasises her enthusiasm in discovering the country that is a part of her father’s identity, Cambodia. Hoffman (2004) rationalised the reluctance of returning and refusal to allow children to return to the site of atrocity as her parents were committed in moving forward, living in the present instead of indulging in the past. This reluctance generated Hoffman’s curiosity to visit the geographical space instead of seeing it through her imagination or visualisation. Likewise, this reluctance and desire to return are also visible in HFD as at first her father hesitates to allow her to visit Cambodia. When Kuan finally allows Pung to visit Cambodia, they visit it together.

Nonetheless, Kuan tries to limit as much as possible Pung’s exposures to the killing fields or to war memorials or any place that can trigger his memory of the heart-breaking experiences. She clarifies, “She was taken to see the royal palace…the Angkor Wat…the floating village…But not the genocide museum with its bloodstained floor…not the killing fields of skulls and broken teeth” (HFD, p. 208). This shows how her father limits her discovery of Cambodia and its history when she returns. Pung is conflicted with her return since she feels that she wants to comprehend the past yet, there are boundaries she cannot cross as she only has indirect memory of her father’s experiences of Cambodia’s genocide.

In addition, in the act of ‘returning’ for the generation of post-memory, Hirsch and Spitzer (2002) signified, “Returning to the site of atrocity with our parents enabled us to bear witness to and participate in their transitory acts of memory, acts that allowed – for some moments at least – conflicting recollections to coexist” (p. 263). In HFD, Pung becomes the witness who inherits her father’s memory when she observes the site of atrocity, together with her father who has directly experienced Cambodia’s genocide. Pung recounts both her encounters and her father’s encounters with the killing fields towards the end of HFD when she narrates both her perspectives and his perspectives of occurrences. When she visits the field, she is overwhelmed by her thoughts that she does not really recognise her father and she cannot even identify herself. Pung confesses, “The field left her exposed…realising how little she knew about anything or anyone, even how very little she knew about herself. It stripped her of all certainty” (p. 214). This validates that for the second-generations including Pung herself, they are curious to explore their parents’ past and they return to trace their ancestral and cultural roots and routes as they are trying to fill in the gaps of what they know and what they do not know.

When she physically visits the tangible place or space, she becomes the actor who encounters ‘the real’: the physical place, the killing field and ‘the imagined’: the knowledge that she has regarding Cambodia’s genocide, through her father’s memory and experiences as well as stories or the way he behaves in the present. What is left for Pung when she returns to both the geographical place and her post-memory is only partial remembrance of past events as those experiences and memories are transferred that they become belated memory or second-hand remembrance. Even though she has been interested to comprehend its historical period, as she reads books and researches on Cambodia’s genocide and other traumatising period, whatever she knows is still limited as she does not experience past events directly.

Nevertheless, we argue that as a second-generation Asian-Australian, Pung’s intention to discover her roots is not because she cannot feel a sense of belonging in Australia but, she is interested to learn about history or the past so that she can understand her father better. For Pung, growing up in Australia is different from her friends or mainstream Australians, not only because of the fact that she is partly ‘Asian’ but, because of her father’s memory of Cambodia’s genocide which continues to hunt him for the rest of his life.  As a second-generation who ‘inherits’ her father’s memory and migration, Cambodia becomes a country which is ‘unaccustomed’ since she states that, Cambodia is “A country she would never understand, but that had shaped her father and made him who he was” (HFD, p.238). Thus, as Pung cannot relate well with both China and Cambodia, as an Australian-born subject, she constantly creates and acknowledges Australia as her ‘home’ and she struggles to comprehend her ‘return’. Return is complex yet, she often returns to her father’s memory or her post-memory as she has lived in close proximity with her father’s traumatic experiences.

CONCLUSION

Through close readings of HFD, we have figured out that the predicaments of memory and migration are enhanced through the idea that both memory and migration are transmitted to second-generation children as they tend to accumulate post-memory and similar traumatic experiences as they become conscious of being in the diaspora, in the present. Even though second- or subsequent-generations do not experience the past directly, they embody emotional attachments to past experiences including those experiences related to migration. When they are embedded with their parents’ past experiences and a place left behind, they begin to have a desire to return. Pung’s HFD presents this desire to return as Pung is curious to discover her cultural roots and routes as she tries to comprehend her father. We believe that even though this desire is also not totally one’s own, she is still a part of this whole intricate journey of intergenerational transmission of not only memory but, a place left behind.

Nevertheless, when Pung returns to Cambodia and China, return becomes ambiguous as she is only capable of returning to the current Cambodia and China. The current Cambodia and China are different as she is disconnected from them spatially and temporally. In addition, she only experiences China and Cambodia through her father’s stories or through studying and figuring out her cultural roots and routes. When she searches for a sense of belonging or when she believes that she should feel a certain way when returning physically, her expectation is met with disappointment. Therefore, Pung’s return reflects post-memory as she does not directly witness past experiences including migration yet, she has to live with ruptures and remnants of past events, in the present, causing her to yearn to trace her ancestral and cultural roots and routes. Her consciousness of being in the diaspora and/or transnationalism leads her to continue her emotional and symbolic attachments to her parents’ homelands especially for her to write.

Conflict of Interest

The authors agree that there is no conflict of interest when writing and completing this paper.

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