Analysis of Grammatical Error in Malay Language Writing by China International Students

Analysis of Grammatical Error in Malay Language Writing by China International Students

Daing Zairi Ma’arof., Maryam Mohamed Amin., Maharam Mamat., Sofia Ayup., Nurul Atiqah Md. Suhada., Shazleena Othman., Azlan Ahmad

Centre of Liberal Studies, The National University of Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.908000522

Received: 12 August 2025; Accepted: 19 August 2025; Published: 19 September 2025

ABSTRACT

Writing and speaking are important aspects in the teaching and learning of languages. The learning of Malay as a second language also emphasizes these aspects. However, writing is often identified as the aspect where international students frequently make mistakes. Therefore, this study aims to examine the types of language errors made by China international students who are learning Malay at the National University of Malaysia (UKM). The instrument used in this analysis is the students’ essay writing scripts. The students’ writings were analysed using a contrastive analysis approach and error analysis. A total of 250 essay scripts were analysed, all of which are from China students enrolled in the Malay language course at UKM. In addition, the study also employed the interview method. The study found that the errors made by students include aspects of morphology (uppercase and lowercase, misplace vowels and consonants), syntax (D-M Rule) and semantics (direct translation and loanwords). The interview findings revealed that 65% of the students agreed that their primary difficulty lay in distinguishing between sounds of letters that are very similar. The study suggests that emphasizing the role of teachers in guiding students, along with diversifying teaching techniques that can engage students’ interest in earnestly learning Malay, is crucial. This approach ensures that students do not take linguistic aspects lightly when learning a new language.

Keywords: language errors; writing assessment scripts; Malay language; China international students; UKM

INTRODUCTION

This study was inspired by the observation of frequent and repetitive errors made by students each semester in their writing skills. Writing involves the process of depicting graphic symbols to convey ideas and information, requiring cognitive abilities to form words [1]. Particularly, scientific writing, the outcome of scientific thought in a certain discipline, requires precise language use [2], [3]. Writing involves the selection of words, sentence arrangement, and text structure as well as the use of accurate and nuanced language. International students often experience culture shock and communication difficulties in new social and academic environments, due to language, accent, and pronunciation differences [4]-[6]. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) welcomes thousands of international students annually, with students from various countries required to complete a Malay language course as a graduation prerequisite [7]. The process of learning Malay is often challenging for international students, particularly due to a lack of interest in learning a new language [8]. This study aims to identify patterns of spelling errors in the writing drafts of students enrolled in the LMCM1083 Malay Language International Communication course.

Challenges Writing In A Foreign Language

Learning a foreign language, especially one that is not widely used, presents its challenges, with mastering vocabulary being a critical aspect that greatly influences writing skills [9]. For international students in Malay language courses, familiarizing themselves with Malay vowels and consonants, and their correct pronunciation is crucial. Despite similarities in vowel and consonant symbols between Malay and English, differences in spelling and pronunciation often cause confusion among students. The writings of international students frequently contain numerous spelling and word errors, primarily due to misunderstandings of vowel and consonant sounds in the Malay alphabet [10]. These spelling mistakes, easy to make but challenging to correct, highlight the problems faced by international students in correctly spelling Malay words [11]. The situation becomes more complex in classroom settings with written spelling exercises. For example, Saudi Arabian students struggle with using the letters [b] and [p] in Malay, as the [p] sound does not exist in Arabic. To address this issue, a specific methodology and more in-depth study of orthographic errors in Malay are required to identify the most effective teaching methods and develop strategies that effectively help international students overcome these linguistic challenges and improve their Malay language proficiency.

Purpose of Study

This current study identifies grammatical errors made by China international students based on their draft writing assignments. The writing draft is one of the course evaluation elements. Specifically, the objectives of this study are to:

1. Identify the forms of grammatical errors made in students’ writing drafts.
2. Classify grammatical errors that are often made by China international students.

Research Questions

To answer the problems and objectives of the study, the researcher formulated the following research questions:

1. What forms of grammatical errors do international students from China make in their writing drafts?
2. What types of grammatical errors do international students from China often make when writing assignments in Malay?

METHODOLOGY

This research employs a qualitative methodology, with a specific focus on language error analysis design. The study aims to analyze the construction of orthographic errors in students’ writing drafts, particularly from a grammatical perspective. Error analysis plays a pivotal role in determining the findings of this study. As posited by [12], errors are not just mistaking but carry significant meanings for both the student and the instructor. These errors, often observed in students’ writing and speaking, can be attributed to a lack of focus and concentration, and are sometimes exacerbated by factors such as fatigue and carelessness.

However, it’s important to note that these errors can also be indicative of the strategies employed by students in learning a new language. This is especially true for international students, including those from China. Error analysis provides insight into the types of mistakes made by students learning a foreign language and helps in understanding their learning process [13]. By examining these errors, the study aims to gather empirical evidence of the specific difficulties faced by students. This evidence is crucial as it not only highlights the areas where students struggle but also helps in developing more effective teaching strategies tailored to their specific needs. Thus, error analysis is an essential tool in this study, offering a deeper understanding of the challenges faced by international students in learning the Malay language.

A. Data Collection Tool

In this study, the primary instrument utilized is the writing drafts produced by international students at a Malaysian public university. These drafts serve as the basis for analyzing Malay orthographic errors. Specifically, the analysis focuses on identifying and understanding the errors in these drafts, which were created as part of the evaluation component for the Malay Language International Communication course.

By examining these writing drafts, the study aims to gain insights into the specific types of orthographic errors made by the international students. This approach allows for a direct assessment of the students’ understanding and application of the Malay language in a written format. The analysis of these drafts is crucial in identifying common patterns of mistakes, which can then inform the development of targeted teaching strategies to address these areas of difficulty. This method provides a practical and direct way to assess the proficiency and challenges faced by students in their journey of learning Malay as a foreign language.

B. Students Writing Draft

The LMCM1083 International Malay Language Communication course assesses students through three components: student writing (30%), individual presentations (30%), and daily conversations (40%), totaling 100%. This study focuses on the initial and final drafts of student writing, where students prepare an initial draft in one hour for teacher review. By analyzing both drafts, the study aims to understand the development of students’ writing skills, evaluating errors in the initial drafts and how improvements are made in the final drafts. This helps in understanding the effectiveness of teaching methods and the learning progression of students in this course.

C. Study and Analysis Procedures

After reviewing the students’ writing drafts, the researchers began by marking the language errors appearing in the writing draft. These errors were marked with different colours covering various aspects of grammatical errors to facilitate the analysis process. The analysis of this writing draft includes all forms of language errors because the grammatical aspect also includes punctuation, not just words. The analysis also involves dropping forms and adding consonants, vowels, diphthongs, and consonant doublets. The analysis also examines the existence of redundant forms of words students use. Based on the various forms of language errors found in student writing drafts, the classification of those errors was done according to the category of words in the Malay language.

Past Studies

Orthographic errors in the Malay language are not solely confined to third language learners but are also prevalent among local Malaysian students who use Malay as a second or third language. A study conducted by [14] in several secondary schools in the Tuaran district of Sabah revealed that there is a significant incidence of spelling errors among secondary school students in the area. These errors typically involve the addition, removal, or replacement of letters in various types of words, including loanwords, base words, and derivative words. Such mistakes often stem from the influence of pronunciation patterns in the students’ mother tongues.

Additionally, a study by [15] highlighted grammar mistakes among Malaysian language learners who speak a second language, such as students in Tamil and Chinese National Type Schools. These errors are frequently linked to confusion or unclear understanding of sentence structure, improper use of verbs, affix errors, and spelling mistakes.

Further research by [16] at the Kajang Tamil National Type School found that a majority (97%) of capitalization errors occurred in proper nouns, indicating a lack of understanding among students regarding common nouns. This confusion is partly attributed to the fact that the Tamil language does not differentiate between upper- and lower-case letters. Moreover, local Malaysian Chinese students also face challenges in learning Malay, particularly with the pronunciation of certain letters. A common difficulty is the pronunciation of the letter “r” as “l”, as in pronouncing the word “run” as “lali” instead of ‘lari’. These various studies collectively illustrate the diverse range of orthographic challenges faced by Malaysian students in learning the Malay language, influenced by their linguistic backgrounds and the specific features of their mother tongues.

Research on error analysis in the Malay language has revealed that there are commonalities between learners of Malay as a foreign language and learners of other third or foreign languages. These studies have consistently identified morphological and orthographic errors in the writings of foreign students studying Malay. For instance, a study by [17] examined the types of grammatical errors in the final exam answer papers of foreign students taking the Advanced Communication Malay Language course at UNIMAS. Participants in this study hailed from diverse backgrounds, including Bangladesh, Japan, Morocco, Tajikistan, Africa, China, Indonesia, and Brunei. This study found a total of 215 grammatical errors, with the majority being orthographic in nature. The orthographic errors were categorized into three types: changing letters with other letters, adding letters in words, and dropping letters in words. Reference [18] conducted a study on the planning, strategies, and challenges faced by foreign students learning the Malay language. This study also identified orthographic errors, particularly in the Malay essay writings of Arab students.

Another related study focused on foreign language learners studying Arabic at the Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM). Conducted by [19], it investigated learners’ perceptions of error types, the factors causing these errors, and their effects. Reseracher pointed out that the main challenge for foreign language learners in Arabic is the language’s complex grammar rules, which often lead to orthographic errors. Orthographic errors in Arabic are frequently influenced by the interference of the mother tongue, affecting the understanding of standard and informal Arabic, with intralingual errors being a prominent issue. These studies collectively highlight the common orthographic challenges faced by foreign language learners, whether in Malay, Arabic, or other languages. They underline the influence of grammatical complexities and the interference of native languages on learners’ ability to accurately use orthography in a new language.

Malay language proficiency is notably low among local Malaysian Chinese students, particularly those who are native Chinese speakers attending SJKC (Sekolah Jenis Kebangsaan Cina) schools. According to [20], these students often struggle with the Malay language due to inadequate understanding of its grammar rules. Their limited vocabulary and mastery of the language lead to difficulties in conveying ideas and frequent technical errors in essay writing, as noted by [21]. Common language errors among SJKC students primarily involve sentence structure, followed by orthographic errors. These include three aspects: spelling mistakes, errors in using uppercase and lowercase letters, and punctuation errors, as identified by [22], [23].

To address these issues, [24] suggest that the translation method can be effective in teaching the Malay language. They recommend that the Malay vocabulary being taught should be accompanied by corresponding vocabulary in the students’ mother tongue. This approach is believed to facilitate better understanding and mastery of Malay vocabulary among students. These students often find it more comfortable to use their mother tongue in daily interactions, which further hinders their acquisition of the Malay language. These findings underscore the importance of adopting teaching methods that are sensitive to the linguistic backgrounds of students and that can effectively bridge the gap between their native language and the language they are learning.

Spelling errors are the most common among foreign language learners, as observed in a study by [17], involving learners from countries such as Bangladesh, Japan, Morocco, Tajikistan, China, Africa, Indonesia, and Brunei Darussalam. These errors are classified into five aspects based on the difficulty level of mastering the language, encompassing basic elements of the Malay language such as basic number words, question words, basic communication words, personal pronouns, and greetings. On this note, foreign language learners frequently make mistakes in the use of capital letters, punctuation, and spelling errors.

For international students from China, mispronunciations occur because students translate English words into Malay words without understanding the meaning of the word pronounced. Students were found to only memorize the words without understanding the meaning. Students from Korea face difficulty in pronouncing the letters “R” and “L”, while Belgian students have difficulty distinguishing the letters M, N, and W. Foreign students also have problems using correct grammar, such as the affixes Ber-, Meng-, -Kan in the Malay language even though they understand conversations in Malay [25]. This is not surprising because foreign language learners studying abroad are already proficient in English, thus deciding to learn the local Malay language by merely translating it without understanding the word or knowing how to pronounce it properly.

Various studies have highlighted significant orthographic errors in student writing in the Malay language, particularly regarding the use of capital letters, small letters, and punctuation. Researchers like [26]-[29] have identified these as common issues in student writings. Additionally, about five percent of language learners make grammatical mistakes in English writing, many fail to use capital letters at the beginning of sentences. Reference [16] attributed this problem to confusion regarding the use of common and proper nouns, as well as a lack of understanding of the meanings of specific words or phrases.

These studies collectively point to a poor command of the Malay language among students, influenced by factors such as limited early exposure to the language. This issue is not confined to academic settings but extends to broader contexts as well. For instance, a study conducted by [30] on Malay spelling errors and punctuation in public service announcement texts in Malaysia revealed significant mistakes through email. These included errors in the spelling of plural nouns, number words, loan suffixes, and particle words. The presence of such errors in official texts is concerning, particularly given that Malay is the national language. These findings underscore the need for more rigorous attention to language education and usage, both in academic environments and in the creation of public and official materials.

First language interference influences the occurrence of Malay orthographic errors among language learners learning a third or foreign language. The first language is the mother tongue, which acts as an intermediary language for an individual’s communication, knowledge, and skills. It refers to a person’s first language learned and affects thinking and communicating. According to [31], the mother tongue interferes with the learning process of other languages ​​due to limited orthography, syntax, and morphology of the new language. At the same time, there is an influence from the first language that disrupts the structure, system, and grammar rules of the Malay language, and even affects the generation of ideas, writing techniques and vocabulary. Learning a second or third language is disrupted when students are influenced by the structure of the first language.

In Malaysia, the phenomenon of mother tongue interference is prevalent among various ethnic and tribal groups, particularly for those learning Malay as a second or third language. At Chinese National Type Schools (SJKC), students often struggle with Malay due to their limited vocabulary, which is partly due to a lack of reading materials in Malay. Their language learning is also influenced by their first language, which is typically English or a dialect of Mandarin, as observed by [32].

The interference of the first language is a common issue not only in SJKC and SJKT (Sekolah Jenis Kebangsaan Tamil) schools but also among students of various ethnicities such as Kenyah, Iban, Orang Asal, and others. This has been extensively studied and highlighted in research by scholars [15], [22], [33], [34].

For international students studying in Malaysia, Malay is the third language to be mastered after their mother tongue and English, their second language. According to the Malaysian Private Higher Education Act 1996, international students must take and pass two Malay language courses as a requirement to graduate [7]. This requirement creates anxiety among international students because they have never been exposed to the Malay language and must learn a new language that is rarely used internationally [35], [36].

The challenge of limited Malay vocabulary and the influence of mother tongue among international students has led to the recognition of translation as an effective method in the language learning process. This approach allows learners to use translation as a tool to analyze and understand the language being learned, as suggested by [35], [37], [38]. Additionally, language instructors often utilize students’ mother tongues to explain grammar rules, convey meanings, and manage the classroom more efficiently, as noted by [24]. While the use of translation in language learning has its pros and cons, researchers like [39] argue that it facilitates faster vocabulary acquisition. In teaching a second or third language to foreign language learners, translation can be instrumental in helping learners acquire new words and phrases, understand grammar, clarify idiomatic expressions and cultural nuances, comprehend texts more thoroughly, address errors influenced by the mother tongue, and aid in reading comprehension.

However, it’s important to use the mother tongue judiciously in the language learning process. As highlighted by [37], while the mother tongue can be a valuable tool, its use should be limited to avoid excessive reliance. This ensures that students are given ample opportunities to practice and immerse themselves in the new language they are learning.

Based on the studies discussed above, it can be concluded that international students are confronted with problems in orthographic and morphological errors when mastering Malay as a third or foreign language. This study is an extension of studies related to orthographic errors international students make in writing their Malay language essays while learning Malay as a third language.

FINDINGS

The following is an analysis of grammatical errors in the writing drafts of China international students at UKM. The study found that the errors made by students include aspects of morphology, syntax, and semantics. Morphological errors include orthographic mistakes involving the use of uppercase and lowercase letters and errors in the use of vowels and consonants. Syntactic errors involve the presence of slack elements in the spelling of words and errors in the application of the D-M Rule. Semantic errors involve the direct translation of meaning from the original words. The categories of errors found are the substitution of vowel letters, the change of consonant letters, lowercase and uppercase letter errors, direct translation, and the use of loanwords.

A. Morphology Aspects – Orthography

1) Use of Uppercase and Lowercase Letters

In the Malay language’s orthography, specific rules dictate the usage of lowercase and uppercase letters based on a word’s role. Generally, uppercase letters are employed at the beginning of sentences and for special terms known as proper nouns. Analyses reveal that international students from China frequently make mistakes in using capital letters. Below is a compilation of typical word errors found in these students’ writings.

Table 1 demonstrates the confusion among students regarding the use of common and proper nouns in the Malay language. A notable issue is the incorrect usage of lowercase letters for proper nouns, such as writing ‘Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia’ in lowercase. Similarly, students often start sentences with lowercase letters, for instance, writing ‘saya tinggal …’ instead of ‘Saya tinggal…’. This error also extends to acronyms such as ‘UKM’ and ‘FSSK’, which are mistakenly written in lowercase in the table.

Table I Use of uppercase and lowercase letters

This confusion is largely attributed to the influence of the students’ native language, particularly among Chinese speakers. In Chinese, the written form primarily uses symbols, known as sinographs, in a system called sinography, as explained by [40]. This linguistic background contributes to the perception that all letters are uniform and not subject to rules distinguishing lowercase and uppercase letters.

This linguistic characteristic of Chinese writing, which does not distinguish between upper and lower case, affects the understanding and application of such concepts in languages like Malay, where capitalization is significant. Thus, these students often struggle to correctly apply the rules of capitalization in Malay due to their native language’s influence, highlighting the importance of addressing such linguistic differences in language education.

2) Replacement of Vowels

Orthographic errors in replacing (a, e, i, o, u) vowels are common among international students who learn Malay as a third or foreign language.

1. Vowel replacement /a/:

Orthographic errors in substituting the vowel /a/ for other vowels in international students’ writing drafts are the most identified errors. The /a/ vowel is replaced by other vowels such as /e/, /o/, /i/ and /u, as shown in the table below:

Table II Replacement of the vowel /a/

Table 2 highlights the orthographic errors made by international students from China in their use of the Malay language. These errors in vowel positioning are not confined to any specific part of a word; they occur at the beginning, middle, and end. This randomness indicates a lack of consistency in understanding and applying the correct vowel sounds in Malay.

The principle behind these orthographic errors often lies in the incorrect spelling of words as they are pronounced. Additionally, errors may arise from students’ negligence in not thoroughly checking their spelling. A typical example is the misspelling of the word ‘sayang’ (meaning ‘love’) as ‘saying’. This particular error is likely influenced by the automatic spell-check feature on computers set to English, where the vowel /a/ in ‘sayang’ is automatically changed to /i/, resulting in ‘saying’.

2. Vowel replacement /e/:

Based on the analysis of writing drafts produced by students from China, it was found that there are /e/ vowel substitutions in their writing. However, this replacement only involves two other vowels, namely the vowel /a/ and the vowel /u/. The following are the words that undergo vowel change /e/:

Table III Vowel Replacement /e/

The analysis of orthographic errors shows that errors involving the vowel /e/ occur in both initial and final syllables, with the most common mistake being the replacement of /e/ with /a/. The substitution of /e/ with /u/ is less frequent, considered an isolated error. This indicates that such an error is not a widespread issue in students’ orthographic practices, but rather an occasional mistake. This understanding helps identify specific areas of confusion in students’ orthographic skills, guiding a more targeted and specific teaching approach to address this particular error, rather than broader strategies.

B. Semantic Aspects

1) Direct Translation

The translation method has been a fundamental approach in language learning, especially in Europe from the 1840s to the 1940s. This approach utilizes the learner’s native language as the primary reference point for acquiring a new language, potentially leading to bilingualism, as noted by [24]. Translation plays a crucial role in understanding a new language, facilitating comprehension and helping learners connect the two languages. This is particularly beneficial for beginners, allowing them to relate new vocabulary and structures to their existing language knowledge.

The analysis of the student’s writing draft found that the words used in the student’s writing is a direct translation from the English language, and the translation is inaccurate. The following is a list of words that are classified as direct translations:

Table IV Use of direct translation

Table 4 shows clearly that there is a direct English translation in the student’s writing draft. This situation clearly shows that students use Google Translate when they do not know a Malay word. Most of the words in the table above are direct translations from Google Translation. In addition, there are also translations from Indonesian such as the word ‘kakek’ to refer to grandfather. The researcher reasons that international students may have some knowledge related to Indonesian words learned before, or students asked their peers who are Indonesian.

2) Misuse of Loanwords

The Malay language contains loanwords from English, but with different spellings. Students, especially those new to learning Malay, often blindly borrow words from the original language in their writing without considering the spelling differences. They assume that Malay frequently incorporates loanwords from other languages, including in writing. An analysis of the writing drafts of Chinese international students at UKM shows that most of the loanwords used are sourced from English, and most of the English words in the drafts are not taught in class. Students tend to use the original language as an easy way out in their draft writing. Here is a list of English loanwords found in student writing drafts:

Table V Loanwords

The list provided clearly indicates the significant impact of English on students’ writing. This influence is seen not only in the usage of English loanwords but also in the incorporation of Indonesian loanwords into their writing. One notable instance is the use of the word ‘kakek’, meaning ‘grandfather’, in the sentence ‘My grandfather lives in China’. This word ‘kakek’ is specific to Indonesian and its usage in this context reflects the influence of Indonesian language on the student’s writing. The presence of both English and Indonesian loanwords in students’ writing is indicative of the diverse linguistic influences that these learners are exposed to.

Syntax

D-M Rule

In addition, mistakes in students’ writing can also be detected through DM law. Most students face problems in structuring words causing the existence of DM legal errors. Among the word errors identified in student writing are as in the table below:

Table VI D-M Rule

Table 6 shows that students face difficulties in constructing correct phrases in Malay, primarily due to confusion from translating English to Malay and the tendency to translate directly from their mother tongues. This habit fails to capture the nuances and specific grammatical structures of the target language, particularly challenging for students accustomed to thinking in their native languages. The error of borrowing words from other languages is linked to students’ attitudes of underestimating the Malay language when drafting essays, as well as a lazy attitude towards consulting dictionaries. These findings are reinforced by the analysis of student writing drafts and instructor observations.

Interview Finding

To triangulate the data collected from the written drafts, the study incorporated semi-structured interviews as an additional qualitative method. A purposive sample of ten students was selected to provide deeper, first-hand insights into their perceptual challenges. The analysis of these interviews yielded a significant thematic finding: a majority of participants (65%) identified phonemic confusion as their primary hurdle. Specifically, they reported difficulty in distinguishing between phonemes—the distinct sound units in a language—that are acoustically similar and not present in their native Mandarin phonological system. Examples of similar sounds in Malay include the plosive consonants /p/ and /b/. Furthermore, difficulty in identifying the correct letters for consonant clusters such as /ny/ and /ng/ was also a contributing factor to this problem. This auditory challenge often led to mispronunciation and subsequent spelling inaccuracies in their writing. This finding crucially moves beyond merely cataloguing errors in written text by directly uncovering the learners’ own perspectives on the root cause, thereby highlighting a critical area for targeted pedagogical intervention in pronunciation and listening comprehension.

CONCLUSION

This study was initiated after noticing that students consistently made frequent and repetitive errors each semester, aiming to investigate the reasons and nature of these mistakes and issues related to mastering Malaysian Malay vocabulary. The varied language proficiency levels among students added complexity for language instructors. The main findings indicate that orthographic errors, particularly involving lexical consonants and vowels, are most common among international students. Despite the similarity between the Malay and English alphabets, some students struggle with understanding Malay words, including pronunciation confusion.

The study suggests reinforcement and motivational strategies like praise to help students accurately use Malay words. Considering the different rates at which students acquire language skills, encouragement and positive reinforcement are vital for increasing their interest in learning Malay. A focus on the lexical aspect in teaching is highlighted as crucial, emphasizing effective learning of Malay vocabulary and structures.

RECOMMENDATION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

A potential study is an international comparison of grammatical errors, focusing on the mistakes made by international students from countries like Korea, Japan, and ASEAN, in contrast to those made by Chinese students. This would uncover unique error patterns based on different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Another intriguing research topic is the influence of the mother tongue on second language learning, specifically how Mandarin influences the grammar learning process of Chinese students. This study would analyze errors related to the structural features of the Mandarin language. Additionally, it’s crucial to study effective language learning and teaching strategies, particularly those that help students understand and master the grammatical aspects of a second language.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This publication is part of a research study in the Management & Professional Grant (GGPP) with code CITRA-2020-004.

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